Water column use and forage strategies of female southern elephant seals from Marion Island

The at-sea behaviour of marine top predators provides valuable insights into the distribution of prey species and strategies used by predators to exploit patchily distributed resources. We describe the water column usage and dive strategies of female southern elephant seals from Marion Island tracked between 2004 and 2008. Dives representing increases in forage effort were identified using a method that combines dive type analyses and the calculation of relative amounts of time that animals spend in the bottom phases of dives. Results from this analysis indicate that female elephant seals from Marion Island tend to display lower levels of forage effort closer to the island and display intensive opportunistic forage bouts that occur at a minimum distance of approximately 215 km from the island. Females from Marion Island dived deeper and for longer periods of time, compared to females from other populations. Most animals displayed positive diel vertical migration, evidently foraging pelagically on vertically migrating prey. A few animals displayed periods of reverse (negative) diel vertical migration, however, diving to deeper depths at night, compared to daytime. This behaviour is difficult to explain and prey species targeted during such periods unknown. Our results illustrate plasticity in foraging behaviour of southern elephant seals, as well as inter-population differences in forage strategies.     

Size matters: variation in the diet of chick and adult crested terns

We investigated ontogenetic, temporal and spatial patterns in the composition and size of prey in the diet of crested terns, Sterna bergii. Diet analyses indicated that crested terns are a generalist predator on surface-schooling clupeids (Australian anchovy Engraulis australis, sardine Sardinops sagax and blue sprat Spratelloides robustus), Degens leatherjacket Thamnaconus degeni, southern sea garfish Hyporhamphus melanochir, Australian herring Arripis georgianus, slender bullseye Parapriacanthus elongatus and barracouta Thyrsites atun. Ontogenetic differences in prey size indicated that adults are constrained in their foraging behaviour during the early chick-provisioning period by the need to self feed and select smaller prey that can be ingested by their chicks. Chicks consumed significantly higher proportions of clupeids than adults, which consumed mainly Degens leatherjackets and barracouta, suggesting that adults may select higher quality prey for their chicks compared to what they consume themselves. Spatial differences in prey composition were driven by differing proportions of sardine, Australian anchovy and Degens leatherjacket and could reflect local differences in the abundances of these prey. The size of prey taxa consumed by adults also reflected a North–South gradient in prey size. The large component of juvenile sardine in the diet of crested terns suggests future dietary measures may inform fisheries managers about changes in local juvenile sardine abundance. These data could assist in highlighting any fishery-related decreases in sardine recruitment and help ensure commercial fishing practices address principals of Ecologically Sustainable Development developed for Australian fisheries.     

Foraging behaviour of sympatric Antarctic and subantarctic fur seals: does their contrasting duration of lactation make a difference?

The duration of periods spent ashore versus foraging at sea, diving behaviour, and diet of lactating female Antarctic (Arctocephalus gazella, AFS) and subantarctic (A. tropicalis, SFS) fur seals were compared at Iles Crozet, where both species coexist. The large disparity in lactation duration (SFS: 10 months, AFS: 4 months), even under local sympatry, has led to the expectation that AFS should exhibit higher foraging effort or efficiency per unit time than SFS to allow them to wean their pups in a shorter period of time. Previous evidence, however, has not supported these expectations. In this study, the distribution of foraging trip durations revealed two types of trips: overnight (OFT, <1 day) and long (LFT, >1 day), in common with other results from Macquarie Island. However, diving behaviour differed significantly between foraging trip types, with greater diving effort in OFTs than in LFTs, and diving behaviour differed between fur seal species. OFTs were more frequent in SFS (48%) than in AFS (28%). SFS performed longer LFTs and maternal attendances than AFS, but spent a smaller proportion of their foraging cycle at sea (66.2 vs. 77.5%, respectively). SFS dove deeper and for longer periods than AFS, in both OFTs and LFTs, although indices of diving effort were similar between species. Diel variation in diving behaviour was lower among SFS, which foraged at greater depths during most of the night time available than AFS. The diving behaviour of AFS suggests they followed the nychthemeral migration of their prey more closely. Concomitant with the differences in diving behaviour, AFS and SFS fed on the same prey species, but in different proportions of three myctophid fish (Gymnoscopelus fraseri, G. piabilis, and G. nicholsi) that represented most of their diet. The estimated size of the most important fish consumed did not vary significantly between fur seal species, suggesting that the difference in dive depth was mostly a result of changes in the relative abundance of these myctophids. The energy content of these fish at Iles Crozet may thus influence the amount and quality of milk delivered to pups of each fur seal species. These results contrast with those found at other sites where both species coexist, and revealed a scale of variation in foraging behaviour which did not affect their effort while at sea, but that may be a major determinant of foraging efficiency and, consequently, maternal investment.     

An energy–distance trade-off in a central-place forager,the Antarctic fur seal (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Arctocephalus gazella</Emphasis>)

We tested the prediction that lactating fur seals (Arctocephalus gazella) at South Georgia will take prey of greater energy density with increasing distance of foraging from the colony. The study investigated the differences in diet of fur seals foraging within two regions, one near the breeding colony and the other at greater distance. Diet varied significantly in relation to foraging location. Dietary items of low quality were eaten in both regions but more food items with a high-energy content appeared in the diet of seals travelling to distant oceanic waters. We conclude that there is likely to be a trade-off between energy gain and distance travelled which enables female fur seals to maintain a relatively constant rate of energy delivery to their offspring irrespective of the distance travelled to find food.     

Geographical variation in the behaviour of a central place forager: Antarctic fur seals foraging in contrasting environments

Foragers show adaptive responses to changes within their environment, and such behavioural plasticity can be a significant driving force in speciation. We investigated how lactating Antarctic fur seals, Arctocephalus gazella, adapt their foraging within two contrasting ecosystems. Location and diving data were collected concurrently, between December 2003 and February 2004, from 43 seals at Bird Island, where krill, Euphausia superba, are the main prey, and 39 at Heard Island, where mostly fish are consumed. Seals at Heard Island were shorter and lighter than those at Bird Island and they spent longer at sea, dived more frequently and spent more time in the bottom phase of dives. Generalized additive mixed effects models showed that diving behaviours differed between the islands. Both populations exploited diel vertically migrating prey species but, on average, Heard Island seals dived deeper and exceeded their estimated aerobic dive limits. We propose that the recovery of the Heard Island population may be limited by the relative inaccessibility and scarcity of food, whereas at Bird Island, the presence of abundant krill resources helps sustain extremely high numbers of seals, even with increased intra- and inter-specific competition. Both populations of fur seals appear to be constrained by their physiological limits, in terms of their optimal diving behaviour. However, there does appear to be some flexibility in strategy at the level of trip with animals adjusting their time at sea and foraging effort, in order to maximize the rate of delivery of energy to their pups.     

Size and seasonal influences on the foraging range of female grey seals in the northeast Atlantic

Evidence of segregation in foraging habitat has been demonstrated in some top marine predators, including cetaceans, pinnipeds and seabirds. However, most data are not adequate to assess differences relating to body size or seasonal influences. This has implications for quantitative modelling of population-level predator–prey interactions and ecosystem structure. We examined potential influence of body size and ‘fatness’ on the foraging trip characteristics of a top marine predator, the Atlantic grey seal (Halichoerus grypus), in southwest Ireland within the framework of optimal foraging theory to examine how female grey seals foraging behaviour varied with size, and across the period between moult and breeding. Larger seals undertook trips of greater duration and travelled further from haul-out sites than smaller seals. However, body fat was negatively associated with trip duration and extent. Seals spent more time at sea during the summer, but trips were shorter in extent, suggesting more localized foraging during this season.     

Trophic segregation between sexes in the Black Skimmer revealed through the analysis of stable isotopes

The degree of individual or gender variation when exploiting food resources is an important aspect in the study of foraging ecology within a population. Previous information on non-breeding skimmers obtained through conventional methodologies suggested sex-related differences in prey species. In this study, stable isotope techniques were used to investigate the intraspecific segregation in diet and foraging habits of the Black Skimmer (Rynchops niger intercedens) at Mar Chiquita Coastal Lagoon (37°40′S, 57°22′W), Argentina. These results were compared with contemporary data on the trophic composition obtained by conventional methodologies. Blood samples were taken from birds captured with mist-nets during their non-breeding season. The isotopic signatures of skimmers showed a diet mainly composed of marine prey with some degree of estuarine fish intake. When comparing diet between sexes, males showed enrichment in ¹⁵N compared to females, while no differences were observed in ¹³C. The use of mixing models revealed differences in the relative composition of prey in the diet of male and female skimmers. This study highlights stable isotope analysis as a valuable tool to test inter-individual differences and sexual segregation in trophic ecology of Black Skimmers as compared to conventional methodologies. The results show a trophic segregation in the Black Skimmer during the non-breeding season that can be explained by differences in prey species and larger prey sizes of male skimmers. Our findings have significant implications for conservation since any environmental change occurring at wintering areas might have profound effects on several avian life-history traits, and could be different for males and females due to trophic segregation.     

Diet of the Humboldt penguin (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Spheniscus humboldti</Emphasis>) in northern and southern Chile

The diet of the Humboldt penguin (Spheniscus humboldti) was examined and compared in two colonies in Chile. Field work was conducted on Pan de Azúcar Island in northern Chile in the breeding season 1998/1999 and on the Puñihuil Islands in southern Chile over two successive breeding seasons during 1997/1998 and 1998/1999. Penguin diet was studied by stomach-pumping birds and analysed by species composition, size and mass of prey. Fish were the dominant prey item at both sites, the contribution of cephalopods and crustaceans varying between sites. The fish prey consisted predominantly of school fish, but there were clear latitudinal differences in fish prey taken. Penguins in the northern colony consumed primarily garfish (Scomberesox saurus), while birds at the southern colony of Puñihuil fed primarily on anchovy (Engraulis ringens), Araucanian herring (Strangomera bentincki) and silverside (Odontesthes regia). The results showed significant differences in terms of numbers of fish taken between the two breeding seasons at Puñihuil. In 1997/1998 penguins consumed almost exclusively anchovy, while they fed primarily on silversides in the successive year. Almost all prey, except stomatopods, were characterised as being pelagic species that occur in relatively inshore water, consistent with the foraging behaviour of Humboldt penguins. The dependence of Humboldt penguins on commercially exploited, schooling prey species makes the species particularly susceptible to changes in prey stocks, due to non-sustainable fisheries management.Communicated by O. Kinne, Oldendorf/Luhe     

Stable isotopes document winter trophic ecology and maternal investment of adult female southern elephant seals (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Mirounga leonina</Emphasis>) breeding at the Kerguelen Islands

Individual specialisation is widespread and can affect a population’s ecological and evolutionary dynamics. Whether intra-specific niche differences can influence reproductive investment was examined in a marine mammal, the southern elephant seal (Mirounga leonina), whose females were known to forage in two different areas during the austral winter. The study was conducted at Kerguelen Islands (49°21′S, 70°18′E), southern Indian Ocean, in late winter–early spring 2006. Pups were used as proxies of their mothers’ biology and combined information on their weaning mass (a proxy of females’ foraging success and short-term fitness) together with their blood δ¹³C value (a proxy of female foraging zone). First, the use of isotopic signature of pups was validated to study the female foraging ecology during their pre-breeding trip by demonstrating that δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N values of pups and their mothers were positively and linearly correlated. Then, blood samples were taken from a large number of newly-weaned pups, which were also weighed, to provide information at the population level. Estimated δ¹³C values of female seals encompassed a large range of values (from −23.7 to −19.1‰) with an unimodal frequency distribution, suggesting no contrasted foraging areas within the population. No significant relationship was found between pup weaning mass and their carbon signature, indicating no link between female foraging areas and maternal foraging success and investment. Finally, blood δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N values gave new insights into southern elephant seal ecology, suggesting that females mainly foraged north of the Polar Front where they preyed upon myctophid fish in late winter.     

Spatial and temporal variation in the diet of a high trophic level predator,the Australian fur seal (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus</Emphasis>)

This study quantifies the manner in which Australian fur seals, Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus, use their prey in a spatial and temporal context. We analysed 977 scat and 66 regurgitate samples collected from Tasmanian breeding colonies and haul-outs between 1994 and 2000. Diagnostic prey remains identified in the scats represented 35 fish taxa and 8 cephalopod taxa. The main taxa identified in scats, where frequency of occurrence was 10%, were leatherjacket species (family Monocanthidae), redbait (Emmelichthys nitidus), barracouta (Thyrsites atun), jack mackerel (Trachurus declivis) and red cod (Pseudophysis bachus). Regurgitates were dominated by cephalopods, primarily Goulds squid (Nototodarus gouldi), Octopus maorum, O. berrima/pallidus and Sepia apama. Discriminant function analyses indicated that there were generally no significant differences in the composition of the diet between colonies within a year, suggesting that prey distribution is fairly uniform throughout Bass Strait at those time scales. The diet at breeding colonies, however, exhibited significant inter- and intra-annual variation, determined by the presence of several key taxa, such as barracouta and a species of scorpionfish (family Scorpaenidae). The diet composition also varied regionally, between Bass Strait and southern Tasmania in spring 1999 and autumn 2000, with redbait, barracouta and a species of scorpionfish identified as the main taxa contributing to this difference. Redbait occurred in the diet only in southern Tasmania, whereas barracouta and scorpionfish occurred only in Bass Strait.Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary material is available in the online version of this article at http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00227-003-1219-0.Communicated by G.F. Humphrey, Sydney     

Are penguins and seals in competition for Antarctic krill at South Georgia?

The Antarctic fur seal (Arctocephalus gazella) and macaroni penguin (Eudyptes chrysolophus) are sympatric top predators that occur in the Southern Ocean around South Georgia where they are, respectively, the main mammal and bird consumers of Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba). In recent years the population of fur seals has increased, whereas that of macaroni penguins has declined. Both species feed on krill of similar size ranges, dive to similar depths and are restricted in their foraging range at least while provisioning their offspring. In this study we test the hypothesis that the increased fur seal population at South Georgia may have resulted in greater competition for the prey of macaroni penguins, leading to the decline in their population. We used: (1) satellite-tracking data to investigate the spatial separation of the Bird Island populations of these two species whilst at sea during the breeding seasons of 1999 and 2000 and (2) diet data to assess potential changes in their trophic niches between 1989 and 2000. Foraging ranges of the two species showed considerable overlap in both years, but the concentrations of foraging activity were significantly segregated spatially. The size of krill taken by both species was very similar, but over the last 12 years the prevalence of krill in their diets has diverged, with nowadays less krill in the diet of macaroni penguins than in that of Antarctic fur seals. Despite a significant degree of segregation in spatial resource use by the study populations, it is likely that the South Georgia populations of Antarctic fur seal and macaroni penguin exploit the same krill population during their breeding season. For explaining the opposing population trends of the two species, the relative contributions of independent differential response to interannual variation in krill availability and of interspecies competition cannot be resolved with available evidence. The likely competitive advantage of Antarctic fur seals will be enhanced as their population continues to increase, particularly in years of krill scarcity.     

Foraging ecology of leatherback sea turtles in the Western North Atlantic determined through multi-tissue stable isotope analyses

Leatherback turtles, Dermochelys coriacea, are highly migratory, spending most of their lives submerged or offshore where their feeding habits are difficult to observe. In order to elucidate the foraging ecology of leatherbacks off Massachusetts, USA, stable isotope analyses were performed on leatherback tissues and prey collected from 2005 to 2009. Stable isotope ratios of nitrogen and carbon were determined in whole blood, red blood cells, blood plasma, muscle, liver, and skin from adult male, female, and subadult leatherbacks. Isotopic values were analyzed by body size (curved carapace length) and grouped by sex, and groups were tested for dietary differences. Gelatinous zooplankton samples were collected from leatherback foraging grounds using surface dip nets and stratified net tows, and prey contribution to leatherback diet was estimated using a two-isotope Bayesian mixing model. Skin and whole blood δ¹³C values and red blood cell δ¹⁵N values were correlated with body size, while δ¹³C values of red blood cells, whole blood, and blood plasma differed by sex. Mixing model results suggest that leatherbacks foraging off Massachusetts primarily consume the scyphozoan jellyfishes, Cyanea capillata and Chrysaora quinquecirrha, and ctenophores, while a smaller proportion of their diet comes from holoplanktonic salps and sea butterflies (Cymbuliidae). Our results are consistent with historical observations of leatherback turtles feeding on scyphozoan prey in this region and offer new insight into size- and sex-related differences in leatherback diet.     

Vigilance behaviour and fitness consequences: comparing a solitary foraging and an obligate group-foraging mammal

Vigilance behaviour in gregarious species has been studied extensively, especially the relationship between individual vigilance and group size, which is often negative. Relatively little is known about the effect of conspecifics on vigilance in non-obligate social species or the influence of sociality itself on antipredator tactics. We investigated predator avoidance behaviour in the yellow mongoose, Cynictis penicillata, a group-living solitary forager, and compared it with a sympatric group-living, group-foraging herpestid, the meerkat, Suricata suricatta. In yellow mongooses, the presence of conspecifics during foraging—an infrequent occurrence—reduced their foraging time and success and increased individual vigilance, contrary to the classical group-size effect. Comparing the two herpestids, sociality did not appear to affect overt vigilance or survival rates but influenced general patterns of predator avoidance. Whereas meerkats relied on communal vigilance, costly vigilance postures, and auditory warnings against danger, yellow mongooses avoided predator detection by remaining close to safe refuges and increasing “low-cost” vigilance, which did not interfere with foraging. We suggest that foraging group size in herpestids is constrained by species-distinct vigilance patterns, in addition to habitat and prey preference.     

Relationships between diet and body size, mouth morphology, habitat and movements of six sillaginid species in coastal waters: implications for resource partitioning

The dietary compositions and breadths of sequential 50 mm size classes of the six whiting species found in nearshore (<1.5 m), shallow inner-shelf (5 to 15 m) and/or deep inner-shelf (20 to 35 m) waters of the lower west coast of Australia were determined. Comparisons between the results of principal components analysis of head and mouth dimensions and the dietary compositions of Sillago bassensis, S. vittata, S. burrus, S. schomburgkii, S. robusta and Sillaginodespunctata suggests that any differences in the dietary composition of similar-sized representatives of different species, when they occur in the same habitat, are more likely to be due to differences in foraging behaviour than mouth morphology. Classification, ordination and Schoener's overlap indices showed that, in nearshore waters, the juveniles of Sillago bassensis, which colonise relatively exposed areas, have a different diet to those of the smallest representatives of the other whiting species that occupy more sheltered habitats. S. bassensis consumes mainly amphipods, whereas the smaller representatives of S. vittata, S. burrus, S. schomburgkii and Sillaginodes punctata ingest large volumes of copepods, which are typically abundant in protected nearshore waters. Although the mouth dimensions of S. punctata tend to be smaller than those of Sillago schomburgkii, the larger individuals of the former species ingest greater quantities of larger prey, such as crabs and carid shrimps. As S. bassensis, S. vittata and S. burrus increase in size and migrate out into shallow inner-shelf waters, the latter two species tend to concentrate more on benthic prey, while the former species ingests fauna that is more epibenthic. The largest S. bassensis subsequently migrate out into deep inner-shelf waters, where they co-occur with S. robusta, which is restricted to those waters. In these waters, S. bassensis feeds to a far greater extent on large benthic prey, whereas S. robusta consumes a greater quantity of small epibenthic crustaceans, differences that reflect the far larger lengths of the former species in that region. The above data emphasise that the distribution and ontogenetic movements of the six abundant species of whiting play a major role in facilitating a partitioning of food resources amongst these species found in coastal waters of the lower west coast of Australia. Received: 7 October 1996 / Accepted: 31 January 1997     

Contrast in the importance of arrow squid as prey of male New Zealand sea lions and New Zealand fur seals at The Snares,subantarctic New Zealand

New Zealand sea lions (Phocarctos hookeri) are threatened by incidental bycatch in the trawl fishery for southern arrow squid (Nototodarus sloanii). An overlap between the fishery and foraging sea lions has previously been interpreted as one piece of evidence supporting resource competition for squid. However, there is currently no consensus about the importance of squid in the diet of New Zealand sea lions. Therefore, we investigated this importance independently of spatial and temporal differences in squid availability through a simultaneous study with sympatric New Zealand fur seals (Arctocephalus forsteri), a species known to target arrow squid. Diet sampling at The Snares (48°01′S 166°32′E), subantarctic New Zealand, in February 2012 coincided with peak annual catch in the nearby squid fishery. Diets were deduced by analyses of diagnostic prey remains from scats (faeces) and casts (regurgitations). The contribution of each prey species to the diet was quantified using the per cent index of relative importance (% IRI) that combined frequency of occurrence, mass and number of prey items. Arrow squid was a minor component in sea lion scats (2 % IRI), and none was found in their casts. In contrast, arrow squid was the major component in fur seal scats and casts (93 and 99 % IRI, respectively). This study found that New Zealand sea lions ate minimal squid at a time when squid was clearly available as evidenced by the diet of New Zealand fur seals; hence, there was no indication of resource competition between sea lions and the squid fishery.     

Inter-annual variation in the cephalopod component of the diet of the wandering albatross, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Diomedea exulans</Emphasis>, breeding at Bird Island,South Georgia

Cephalopods play an important role in the diet of many predators of the Southern Ocean. We investigated the cephalopod component of the diet of the wandering albatross, during breeding at South Georgia, from 269 boluses containing more than 34,000 beaks (corresponding to 19,452 individual cephalopods), collected between 1989 and 1999, and assessed the inter-annual variability of the cephalopod species, the level of scavenging on cephalopods by wandering albatrosses and the relationships between cephalopod availability and wandering albatross breeding parameters (breeding period, breeding success, fledging period, fledging success, egg mass and chick mass). We also proposed possible foraging areas of wandering albatrosses based on the cephalopods eaten. The cephalopod component of the diet of wandering albatrosses was relatively stable over the 11 years of the study. By number of lower beaks, three species predominated in the cephalopod component of the diet: Kondakovia longimana (29.5% of the total number of lower beaks; family Onychoteuthidae), Taonius sp. (20.4%; family Cranchiidae) and Histioteuthis sp. B (19.5%; family Histioteuthidae). K. longimana was consistently the predominant cephalopod species by mass in every year of the study (range 60.2-88.7% of mass contribution to diet). A minimum estimate of 30% of the number of cephalopods scavenged corresponded to 85% of the total mass of the cephalopods that contributed to the diet. Wandering albatrosses fed consistently more on "Antarctic" cephalopods than on "sub-Antarctic" or "subtropical" cephalopods in all years of the study, suggesting that Antarctic waters are an important foraging area for wandering albatrosses. Although some significant correlations between cephalopod abundance and wandering albatross breeding parameters existed (e.g. correlation between Taonius sp. by number and fledging success), none included K. longimana. When comparing groups of variables (using canonical analysis), no correlations were found between the most important cephalopod species (by number and by mass), total mass of squid consumed, cephalopod diversity index (H) for each year, and wandering albatross breeding parameters. This may reflect the possibility that other components in the diet (e.g. fish and carrion) are more important or, more likely, that the consistency across years of the wandering albatross breeding performance indicates that it is well buffered against fluctuations in prey availability.     

Analysis of environmental correlates of sexual segregation in northern elephant seals using species distribution models

Elephant seals are among the most sexually dimorphic and polygynous species of all mammals. Their foraging grounds occupy a wide area of the world oceans, where they show spatial segregation between males and females. The objective of this paper was to correlate female and male foraging distributions of Mirounga angustirostris with main climatic variables at a biogeographical scale. We used website and bibliographical sources to obtain information on adult elephant seal distribution and environmental predictors (surface and bottom sea temperatures, productivity and bathymetry) and three species distribution models [maximum entropy model, environmental niche factor analysis and based on climatic envelopes (BIOCLIM)] to predict the habitat suitability of ocean regions. BIOCLIM provided the best fit. Sea surface and bottom temperatures were the variables with the highest explanatory power for females, while bathymetry was for males. Predictive maps suggest that low temperatures constrain female, but not male, distribution at high latitudes. We suggest that large size increases foraging efficiency of males because, among other benefits, it augments thermal insulation, improving the use of cold, rich sectors of the ocean. Different thermoregulatory abilities between sexes due to size dimorphism should be a complementary explanation of sexual segregation in elephant seals.     

Central place foraging by breeding Cook’s petrel Pterodroma cookii: foraging duration reflects range, diet and chick meal mass

Pelagic seabirds are central place foragers during breeding and variation in foraging trip duration and range reflect differences in diet and chick provisioning, through the exploitation of divergent habitats of varying productivity. We tested whether these relationships hold in small procellarriids by equipping chick-rearing Cook’s petrel Pterodroma cookii (200 g) with geolocation-immersion loggers, conducting isotope analysis of blood and measuring chick meal mass following foraging trips of varying duration. Cook’s petrel tracked during chick rearing from Little Barrier Island (LBI) and Codfish Island (CDF), New Zealand had larger maximum ranges during longer foraging trips. Blood nitrogen isotope signatures (δ¹⁵N) of adults were significantly higher after foraging trips of longer duration, but not of greater maximum range. There was no significant relationship between blood carbon isotope signatures (δ¹³C) and foraging trip characteristics. Proportion of time spent on the sea surface and the mass of the meal brought back to chicks were consistently greater for Cook’s petrel with larger maximum ranges, which in the case of birds from CDF coincided with productive subtropical convergence zone habitats. As predicted, trip duration reflected divergent foraging behaviours in Cook’s petrel during breeding. We suggest that the availability of different prey is a key factor governing at-sea distributions and dietary composition of this species.     

Alimentary niche partitioning in the Galapagos sea lion, Zalophus wollebaeki

Sea lions are generally considered opportunistic feeders. However, studies from different areas suggest their diet consists mostly of four to five types of prey. Previous studies in Galapagos sea lions have identified at least three feeding strategies for this species, suggesting diversification of their diet. Diet diversification is favored in organisms with relatively high trophic position and subject to high intra-specific and low inter-specific competition. Zalophus wollebaeki meet these criteria as the only pinniped on San Cristobal Island, where three sea lion rookeries are located within 11 km: a distance considerably shorter than their 41 km foraging range. To measure the degree of diet diversification, we used scats and stable isotope analyses. A total of 270 scat samples from lactating females and 142 fur samples from sea lion pups were collected during the breeding season 2006. The scat analysis identified distinct diets among rookeries, with minimal trophic overlap (Cλ = 0.19), a trophic level TL = 4.5 (secondary–tertiary carnivore), and trophic breadth of a specialist predator (B _i  = 0.37). The mean δ¹⁵N and δ¹³C values were 13.07 ± 0.52 and −16.34 ± 0.37, respectively. No significant difference was found in the δ¹⁵N values from the sea lion rookeries, but differences were found inter- and intra-population in δ¹³C values for pups from different groups (ANOVA P < 0.05). Our results indicate that diet diversification is present in the Galapagos sea lion and may play important role to the survival of the species in a habitat where pinniped populations are limited.