Lower health risk with increased job control among white collar workers

Associations between increased job control and health status were tested with questionnaire data from a random sample of full-time workers (n = 8504) from the national Swedish white collar labor federation, TCO (representing 25 per cent of the Swedish work force). Of these subjects, 1937 had undergone a company-initiated job reorganization during the previous several years. Workers in the job reorganization group who had influence in the reorganization process and obtained increased task control as a result had lower levels of illness symptoms on 11 of 12 health indicators controlling for age and sex (11 of 12 associations significant for males, four of 12 associations significant for females). A previously validated measure of coronary heart disease was significantly lower in circumstances of increased job control for males (8.6 per cent symptom frequency with decreased control versus 3.4 per cent with increased control; p = 0.05). Absenteeism was lower: 10.7 per cent versus 5.0 per cent (0.01). Depression was lower 27.8 per cent to 13.7 per cent (0.001). However, smoking was significantly higher for women 11.0 per cent versus 23.5 per cent (0.01). All illness indicators showed that the process of job reorganization itself was associated with significantly higher symptoms (‘change stress’). However for males (only) symptoms levels when reorganization was accompanied by increased control were often as low or lower than symptom levels for no reorganization at all. Unfortunately, job reorganizations involving employee influence and increased task control were less frequent than job reorganizations involving reduced influence and no increased control, especially for women and older workers.     

Role stressors,social support,and well-being among two-career couples

The study examined relationships among work and family role stressors, work—family conflict, social support, and well-being using data gathered from 119 men and 119 women who were partners in a two-career relationship. Results showed that within-domain relationships of stressors with well-being are stronger than between-domain relationships. Thus, work and family role stressors were primarily related to job satisfaction and family satisfaction respectively, whereas work and family role stressors as well as work—family conflict were associated with overall life stress. Similar results were found for the relationships of social support with well-being. Work support was associated with increased job satisfaction, while spouse support was associated with greater family satisfaction. Some gender differences were found in the relationships of stressors and social support with well-being. Implications of the findings for future research on work—family dynamics were discussed.     

The effects of job stressors on marital satisfaction in Finnish dual‐earner couples

The focus on the present study was to test a mediational model appropriate for explaining the effects of psychosocial job stressors, i.e., job insecurity, job autonomy, time pressures at work, leadership relations and work–family conflict, on marital satisfaction via job exhaustion and psychosomatic health. The study was carried out among 215 married or cohabiting dual‐earner couples. The proposed model was tested through structural equation analysis (LISREL). The results indicated that the job stressors, except for job autonomy, spilled over into marital satisfaction via job exhaustion and psychosomatic health for both men and women. However, no empirical support was found for the crossover of job stressors between partners, signifying that job stressors experienced by one partner did not influence the marital well‐being of the other. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Teenagers' part-time employment and their work-related attitudes and aspirations

We assessed the relationship between the quality (i.e., job characteristics, role stressors, and interpersonal relationships) and quantity of part-time employment, and work-related attitudes and aspirations among 349 students. Neither the linear nor the quadratic components of employment quantity predicted any of the outcome variables. Motivation to do good work was predicted both by role stressors and by family achievement orientation. Career maturity was predicted by role stressors at work, and cynicism by role stressors and satisfaction with interpersonal relationships. In contrast, job involvement was significantly related to family achievement orientation but not to any perceived job factors. These findings question the assumption that only intensive work during high school exerts negative effects for teenagers, and support the importance of employment quality for teenagers as well as adults. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Work stress and the stress-buffering roles of work and family resources

This paper describes the development of the Work Environment Scale, which includes measures of perceived stressful and supportive aspects of the job milieu. This scale is used to examine stressful effects of the work environment on personal functioning and the stress-buffering value of work and family social resources among a representative community group of men and women. Work stressors had a greater impact on men, but supportive social resources provided more attenuation of such effects among men than among women. Although work stressors generally had less effect on men whose wives were employed, high stress in the women's work settings had some indirect negative consequences for their husbands. Reprint requests should be directed to the authors, Social Ecology Laboratory, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University Medical School, Stanford, California 94305, U.S.A.     

The changing significance of different stressors after the announcement of bankruptcy: a longitudinal investigation with special emphasis on job insecurity

The author investigates the effect of job insecurity and other job stressors on the mental health of steel workers. Levels of job stress and mental health were measured seven years before and seven months after the company at which they worked had gone into receivership, a method that can be described as a quasi‐experimental field study with a sample of blue‐collar non‐supervisory male workers. Two out of four job stressors were found to be at a lower level when the second wave of research took place. Regression analyses showed that the correlation between these job stressors and psychosomatic complaints is now lower than during the first wave but that they reach the former level when job insecurity is added. Job insecurity was mainly connected to an increase in psychosomatic complaints and in anxiety. Self‐esteem, depression, and irascibility showed no important relationship to job insecurity when the variables were controlled for mental health status before the onset of job insecurity. Social support, opportunities in the labor market, and duration of contract in the company are identified as moderating the relation between mental health and job insecurity. One conclusion is that positive health effects due to reduction in the stress level may be offset by acute job insecurity. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Sex segregation of work in Finland and the quality of women's work

The Finnish labor market is sharply segregated by sex. This is a statistically well-documented fact and holds true for all Western European market economies. The aim of this article was to find out whether women profit (regarding the quality of their work) from performing the same sort of work as men. The qualitative aspects of work were the following: autonomy at work; lack of routinization of work; the compulsory rhythm of work; and the demands for social skills. We also analyzed monthly pay and its variation according to functional segregation of work. The empirical data came from the Finnish Study on Working Conditions (1984) which is a representative sample of the Finnish wage-earning population with 4502 persons of whom 48 per cent were women and 52 per cent men. Our results indicate that women often profit from the fact that they perform the same sort of work as men. This profit was more apparent for white-collar than for blue-collar women. For men the effects of segregation on job characteristics were the opposite. They often profit from sex segregated work. Social status played a major role regarding the qualitative aspects of work.     

Work–family conflicts of women in the Air Force: their influence on mental health and functioning

This paper examined the effects of work and family stressors and conflicts on Air Force women's mental health and functioning. We analyzed data from a 1993 survey of representative stratified samples of 525 Air Force women from the active duty reserve and guard forces. The analyses of the data are guided by the comprehensive model of work–family conflict that has been tested by Frone, Russell, and Cooper (1992) using a large representative community sample. Structural equation modeling analyses provided support for the work–family conflict model. The analyses also provided support for an extension of the model, which included the separate effects of marital and parental roles on mental health. The extended model demonstrated that job and parental stresses had direct effects on work–family conflicts and that job and marital distress and family–work conflict had an independent adverse effect on mental health. Whereas job and parental involvement had a beneficial effect on distress, they had an adverse effect on work–family conflicts. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A longitudinal field study of group work redesig

The paper describes an action research project on group work redesign which involved blue-collar employees in a confectionery company. A theoretical framework, derived from previous research on semi-autonomous work groups and the Job Characteristics Model modified to apply to group working (Hackman, 1977), was used as a guide to diagnosis, redesign and evaluation. Hie findings, based on a short term evaluation after six months and a longer term evaluation after eighteen months, reveal that substantial increases in group autonomy and group work identity were achieved, and were followed, as predicted, by increased work motivation, performance, job satisfaction and mental health, as well as reduced labour turnover. Of particular interest to subsequent theoretical development is the sensitivity of mental health as an outcome variable, and the existence of differential rates of change in the dependent variables.     

The relationship between job experiences and psychological distress: A structural equation approach

Using structural equations, we estimated the relationship between employees' experiences of seven job conditions, that have been identified as potential job stressors, and psychological distress in a random sample of 504 full-time employed men and women in dual-earner couples. The seven job conditions were: skill discretion, decision authority, schedule control, job demands, pay adequacy, job security, and relations with supervisor. We found that two job conditions — skill discretion and job demands — were related to psychological distress, whereas five other conditions were not. These findings lend partial support to Karasek's job demand — job control model. In our analysis, skill discretion, one of the two components of job control (referred to jointly as decision latitude) was related to distress, however, decision authority, the second component, was not. A third aspect of control, schedule control, was also unrelated to distress. For full-time employed women and men in dual-earner couples, the additive effects of feeling concerned about having to do dull, monotonous work and having to work under pressure of time and conflicting demands were associated with psychological distress. Finally, the magnitude of the relationships between these job experiences and psychological distress did not differ between men and women.     

Exit and voice: A test of hypotheses based on fight/flight responses to job stress

Hypotheses were developed based on a coping model that views political behaviour (voice) as a fight response and turnover (exit) as a flight response to job stress. Data were collected from a group of professional, public employees and turnover dates were obtained for the group 13 months after completion of questionnaires. Multiple regression analysis was employed to test hypotheses. Stressors of interest were person-environment fit (P-E fit), role conflict (RC), and role ambiguity (RA). Psychological strains (job dissatisfaction and lowered commitment) were hypothesized to mediate the stressor-coping behaviour relationship. Turnover (TO) behaviour was the ultimate organizationally relevant outcome of coping behaviours. Job satisfaction and commitment were significantly related to intentions to leave. Political action was directly related to P-E fit and this relationship was not mediated by satisfaction or commitment. The relationship between RA and politics was moderated by commitment. Less committed employees tended to exhibit political behaviour in response to RA. Both coping responses (intentions to leave and political action) predicted significant portions of retention/turnover variance.     

Work stressors and coworker support as predictors of individual strain and job performance

This study examined job stressors and coworker social support in relation to both psychological strains and performance. One hundred and ninety‐eight door‐to‐door bookdealers, employed on a seasonal basis, completed self‐report measures of job stressors, psychological strains, coworker social support, and job performance. Performance data were also obtained from company records. Results indicated that stressors predicted both psychological strains and one of the two measures of performance. The strongest predictor was a job‐specific measure of chronic stressors. Social support predicted psychological strains, although it was only weakly related to performance. There was no evidence that social support moderated the effects of any of the stressors. Implications of these findings are discussed. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Change in job conditions,change in psychological distress,and gender: a longitudinal study of dual-earner couples

Building on the Job-Strain Theory, we estimated three relationships in a random sample of 201 full-time employed men and women in dual-earner couples interviewed three times over a 2-year period. We first estimated the main effects relationships between change over time in employees' experiences of job demands and job control and change over time in psychological distress. Then we estimated the interaction effects relationship of change in job demands on the relationship between change in job control and change in distress. Finally, we estimated the interaction effects of gender on these relationships. Job control was disaggregated into two conceptually distinct job conditions: skill discretion and decision authority. Controlling for other potentially stressful job conditions such as pay adequacy, job security, and relations with supervisor, as well as trait anxiety (an indicator of negative affectivity), change over time in job demands and skill discretion, but not decision authority, was related to change over time in psychological distress. Equally, for full-time employed women and men in dual-earner couples, if concerns about having to do dull, monotonous work increase over time, distress increases; if concerns about having to work under pressure of time and conflicting demands increase over time, distress increases. Finally, neither average skill discretion nor change over time in skill discretion moderated the relationship between job demands and psychological distress. Thus, at every level of skill discretion, high job demands were related to high distress. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Antecedents of work–family conflict: A meta‐analytic review

This study provides and meta‐analytically examines an organizing framework and theoretical model of work–family conflict. Results, based on 1080 correlations from 178 samples, indicate that work role stressors (job stressors, role conflict, role ambiguity, role overload, time demands), work role involvement (job involvement, work interest/centrality), work social support (organizational support, supervisor support, coworker support), work characteristics (task variety, job autonomy, family friendly organization), and personality (internal locus of control, negative affect/neuroticism) are antecedents of work‐to‐family conflict (WFC); while family role stressors (family stressors, role conflict, role ambiguity, role overload, time demands, parental demands, number of children/dependents), family social support (family support, spousal support), family characteristics (family climate), and personality (internal locus of control, negative affect/neuroticism) are antecedents of family‐to‐work conflict (FWC). In addition to hypothesized results, a revised model based on study findings indicates that work role stressors (job stressors, role conflict, role ambiguity, role overload) and work social support (organizational support, supervisor support, coworker support) are predictors of FWC; while family role stressors (family stressors, role conflict, role ambiguity, role overload), family involvement (family interest/centrality), family social support (family support, spousal support), and family characteristics (family climate) are predictors of WFC. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Speaking without words: A meta-analysis of over 70 years of research on the power of nonverbal cues in job interviews

What candidates say in an interview is important—but so is how they say it. We draw on dual-process theory to explain why interviewers rely on individuals' dynamic and static nonverbal cues to evaluate performance with quick, implicit inferences (System 1 processing). Yet, it remains unclear which cues most influence interviewers' judgments and whether moderators affecting interviewers' reliance on System 1 thinking (e.g., interview structure, modality, duration, and interviewee gender) impact the relationship between nonverbal cues and interview ratings. We performed the first meta-analysis to address these questions, integrating findings across 63 studies (N = 4868). The nonverbal cues demonstrating the strongest association with interview performance were professional appearance (ρ = .62), eye contact (ρ = .45), and head movement (ρ = .43). Moderator analyses highlight the persistent power of nonverbal cues, as the results were largely unaffected by interview structure, modality, or duration. Experimental design did play a role, as did interviewees' gender, with stronger effects for certain nonverbal cues (e.g., facial expressions and professional appearance) for women than men, conveying interviewers' reliance on gender-based stereotypes when judging their performance. Overall, these results suggest nonverbal cues and characteristics are an important influence on job applicants' success in employment interviews.     

Social support,autonomy, and hierarchical level as moderators of the role characteristics-outcome relationship

Although previous theory suggests that social support, job autonomy, and hierarchical level moderate role characteristics-employee outcome relationships, the strength of these moderating effects among 2046 bank employees was practically zero. These theoretical moderators and three role characteristics (conflict, ambiguity, and overload) did have direct relationships with the outcomes (job satisfaction and job search intent), as summarized by canonical correlation. Recommendations for future research are offered.     

Job stress,incivility, and counterproductive work behavior (CWB): the moderating role of negative affectivity

The current study was designed to replicate findings from previous research regarding the relationships between job stressors, negative affectivity, and counterproductive work behavior (CWB) using peer‐reported data and to assess the effects of workplace incivility on employee satisfaction and CWB. Results indicate that incivility, organizational constraints, and interpersonal conflict were negatively related to job satisfaction and positively related to CWB. Support was also found for the role of negative affectivity as a moderator of the relationship between job stressors and CWB, although only one significant moderator was found using peer‐reported CWB. In general, the relationships between job stressors and CWB were stronger for individuals high in negative affectivity than for individuals low in negative affectivity. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Job demands,job resources,and their relationship with burnout and engagement: a multi‐sample study

This study focuses on burnout and its positive antipode—engagement. A model is tested in which burnout and engagement have different predictors and different possible consequences. Structural equation modeling was used to simultaneously analyze data from four independent occupational samples (total N = 1698). Results confirm the hypothesized model indicating that: (1) burnout and engagement are negatively related, sharing between 10 per cent and 25 per cent of their variances; (2) burnout is mainly predicted by job demands but also by lack of job resources, whereas engagement is exclusively predicted by available job resources; (3) burnout is related to health problems as well as to turnover intention, whereas engagement is related only to the latter; (4) burnout mediates the relationship between job demands and health problems, whereas engagement mediates the relationship between job resources and turnover intention. The fact that burnout and engagement exhibit different patterns of possible causes and consequences implies that different intervention strategies should be used when burnout is to be reduced or engagement is to be enhanced. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Attitudinal organizational commitment and job performance: a meta‐analysis

A meta‐analysis was conducted to estimate the true correlation between attitudinal organizational commitment and job performance and to identify moderators of this correlation. One‐hundred and eleven samples from 93 published studies were included. The corrected mean correlation was 0.20. The correlation was at least marginally significantly stronger for: (a) extra‐role performance as opposed to in‐role performance; (b) white‐collar workers as opposed to blue‐collar workers; and (c) performance assessed by self ratings as opposed to supervisor ratings or objective indicators. Four other assumed moderators (commitment measure: Affective Commitment Scale versus Organizational Commitment Questionnaire, job level, age, and tenure) did not have at least marginally significant effects. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Job and non-job activities,job satisfaction and mental health among veterinarians

This study examines the relationship between dimensions of job and non-job activity, job satisfaction and mental health among veterinary professionals and tests specific predictions arising from the work of Broad bent (1985) and Karasek (1979). Results are based on an analysis of 411 questionnaires returned in a postal survey. Job and non-job activities contributed a significant proportion of unique variance in total mental health as measured, and related differently to anxiety and depression. Support for Broadbent's (1985) predictions was mixed. Pacing related distinctively to anxiety, but depression showed no relationship to social aspects of activity. Both lack of control over the speed of activities and discretion were related to mental health indices, but support was found for the role of discretion as a buffer in an interactive sense on one outcome measure only. Results are discussed in terms of ideas arising from the clinical literature, and suggestions offered for the potential use of carefully chosen activity in controlling levels of anxiety, depression and well-being.