Mentor–protege diversity and its impact on international internship experiences

This research examines demographic diversity between mentors and proteges on international internships. Using a sample of 138 interns on six‐month overseas assignments, the results indicate that interns who are different in nationality and gender from their mentors are much less likely to receive task‐related, social‐related, and career‐related support from them. Moreover, this deficit in mentoring is associated with poorer socialization to internship assignments, lower levels of learning about international business, lower likelihoods of receiving and accepting job offers from internship employers, and lower perceived career instrumentality of the internships. The implications of the results for future research on mentor–protege diversity and the design of international internships are discussed as well. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The mentor advantage: Perceived career/job experiences of proteges versus non-proteges

Do proteges report having more positive job/career experiences than non-proteges? Do male proteges report having more favorable job/career experiences than female proteges? Do high-level proteges report having more favourable work experiences than low-level proteges? To answer these questions, mentored and non-mentored men and women in high- and low-level positions were asked to evaluate, on a survey questionnaire, their level of satisfaction, career mobility/opportunity, recognition, security and promotion rate. The extent to which these career/job experiences varied as a function of their mentored status, sex and organizational level was examined. The results of the study revealed that mentored individuals reported having more satisfaction, career mobility/opportunity, recognition and a higher promotion rate than non-mentored individuals. However, proteges' perceptions of their job/career situations were not affected by their sex or level. Whether systematic differences exist in the experience of being mentored has yet to be examined.     

Leadership styles,mentoring functions received,and job‐related stress: a conceptual model and preliminary study

This research examined linkages between mentor leadership behaviors (laissez‐faire, transactional contingent reward, and transformational), protégé perception of mentoring functions received (career development and psychosocial support) and job‐related stress of 204 mentor–protégé dyads. Results of Partial Least Squares analysis revealed that mentor transformational behavior was more positively related to mentoring functions received than transactional contingent reward behavior, while mentor laissez‐faire behavior was negatively related to mentoring functions received. Both mentor transformational behavior and mentoring functions received were negatively related to protégé job‐related stress. The relationship between mentor transformational behavior and protégé job‐related stress was moderated by the level of mentoring functions received. Results are discussed as they relate to researchers and practitioners who are becoming interested in finding ways to develop organizational members and allay job‐related stress. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Correlates of career-oriented mentoring for early career managers and professionals

This study examines several different kinds of correlates of career-oriented mentoring experiences among early career managers and professionals. Survey data were collected from 416 respondents employed in a wide variety of jobs, organizations, and industries. The respondents averaged 30 years of age, and 28 per cent were women. Results indicated that younger, more work-involved respondents from higher socioeconomic origins received more career-oriented mentoring. In addition, managers received more mentoring than professionals, as did those who were higher in the organization hierarchy. While gender of the protégé was unrelated to the amount of career mentoring received, reasons are offered for this result. Various boundary conditions likely to affect mentoring processes are discussed and several directions are recommended for future research on mentoring.     

When mentors feel supported: Relationships with mentoring functions and protégés' perceived organizational support

We surveyed full‐time employees of ongoing mentoring relationships to investigate relationships among mentors' perceived organizational support (POS), the extent of mentoring functions protégés received, and protégés' POS. Moreover, we examined the moderating role of mentors' altruistic personality in the relationship between mentors' POS and mentoring functions received. Results showed that mentors' POS was positively related to the extent of mentoring protégés reported receiving, which was then related positively to protégés' POS. Furthermore, the extent of mentoring received partially mediated the relationship between mentors' POS and protégés' POS. We also found that mentors' altruistic personality moderated the positive relationship between mentors' POS and the extent of mentoring received such that this relationship was stronger for low altruistic mentors. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A longitudinal study of mentor and protégé outcomes in formal mentoring relationships

This study examined relationships between mentoring functions offered and transformational leadership as a mentor outcome and affective well‐being and organizational commitment as mutual outcomes for both mentors and protégés. For this examination, we conducted a longitudinal field study by using 111 matched reports from both mentors and protégés collected at three different points in time over seven months in nine Korean companies that administered a standardized formal mentoring program. Study results showed that mentoring functions assessed at Time 2 were positively associated with mentors' and protégés' post‐mentoring outcomes at Time 3 after controlling for pre‐mentoring initial levels of those outcomes at Time 1. Study findings also revealed that relative effects of mentoring on the mentor and protégé outcomes differed by the types of mentoring functions. We discuss the theoretical, practical, and methodological implications from these results. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The mentoring information exchange: when do mentors seek information from their protégés?

The mentoring literature has focused largely on outcomes associated with having been mentored. This study considered informational outcomes associated with being a mentor, viewing the protégé as a source of information for the mentor and vice versa. Survey data were collected across 17 organizations from 161 mentors and 140 protégés. Mentor characteristics and perceptions and characteristics of the relationship were hypothesized to be related to mentors' seeking information from their protégés. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that perceived appropriateness of mentor information seeking, perceived protégé competence, vocational mentoring functions and protégé influence contributed significantly to the prediction of mentor information seeking among the mentor sample; hierarchical distance, perceived appropriateness and mentor self‐monitoring were significant predictors in the protégé sample. Future research directions are discussed. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Maximizing returns on mentoring: factors affecting subsequent protégé performance

This study examined the effects of mentor success, relationship duration, and the amount of mentoring received on protégés' performance after the supervisory mentoring relationship had ended. Data collected from former protégés paired with objective measures of performance indicated that a mentor's success moderated the impact of mentoring functions received on subsequent protégé success. Additionally, the strength of these relationships depended on the length of the mentoring relationship. The present study suggests more emphasis should be placed on the capabilities of the mentor. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Formal mentoring versus supervisor and coworker relationships: differences in perceptions and impact

Formal mentoring programs in two companies were examined regarding (1) the extent to which mentees and mentors agreed on the nature of the mentoring relationships and (2) the extent to which dimensions of mentoring relationships were related to outcomes for the mentees, compared with the extent to which dimensions of supervisory and coworker relationships were related to the same outcomes: job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intentions. Mentors were at least two hierarchical levels above the mentee, and both were part of the companyies' formal mentoring program. Sixty‐one pairs of mentors and mentees participated. Overall, there was little agreement between mentees and mentors regarding the nature of the mentoring relationship. Furthermore, the mentoring relationship was not related to mentee outcomes, while supervisory and coworker relationships were. It is suggested that, if one desires to affect job satisfaction, turnover intentions, and organizational commitment, mentoring functions may be best performed by supervisors and coworkers rather than assigned formal mentors from higher up in the organizational hierarchy. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The role of supervisor political skill in mentoring: Dual motivational perspectives

Drawing on self‐determination and self‐concept‐based theories, this study investigated the mediating effects of psychological empowerment and organization‐based self‐esteem on the relationship between supervisory mentoring and employee performance and the moderating effect of supervisor political skill on the direct and first stage of the indirect effects. Data were obtained from a sample of 330 subordinate–supervisor dyads from the People's Republic of China. Using PROCESS of conditional indirect effect, we found support for the moderated direct and indirect effects of supervisory mentoring. First, supervisor political skill moderates the direct effect of supervisory mentoring on employee promotability. Second, supervisor political skill moderates the indirect effect of supervisory mentoring on the following: (i) employee promotability via both psychological empowerment and organization‐based self‐esteem and (ii) contextual performance only via psychological empowerment. These direct and indirect effects of supervisory mentoring are stronger when supervisors demonstrate a higher level of political skill. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Antecedents of early career stage mentoring among Chinese employees

This study examined the mediating influence of protege‐initiated mentoring relationships on the relationship between personality and situational characteristics and mentoring received. Data were obtained from Hong Kong Chinese graduate employees (N=184) in their early career stage. Results of the regression analysis showed that protege‐initiated mentoring relationships mediated the relationship between the personality (extraversion) but not the situational (individual development culture and opportunities for interactions on the job) characteristics and mentoring received. In other words, extraversion was indirectly related to mentoring received through protege‐initiated mentoring relationships but individual development culture and opportunities for interactions on the job were directly related to mentoring received. Additionally, opportunities for interactions on the job indirectly influenced mentoring received through protege‐initiated mentoring relationships. Limitations of the study, implications of the findings and directions for future research are discussed. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Mentoring with(in) care: A co‐constructed auto‐ethnography of mutual learning

Research into workplace mentoring is principally focussed on predictors and psychosocial and instrumental outcomes, while there is scarcely any in‐depth research into relational characteristics, outcomes and processes. This article aims to illustrate these relational aspects. It reports a co‐constructed auto‐ethnography of a dyadic mentoring relationship as experienced by mentor and protégé. The co‐constructed narrative illustrates that attentiveness towards each other and a caring attitude, alongside learning‐focussed values, promote a high‐quality mentoring relationship. This relationship is characterised, among other things, by person centredness, care, trust and mutual influence, thereby offering a situation in which mutual learning and growth can occur. Learning develops through and in relation and is enhanced when both planned and unplanned learning takes place. In addition, the narrative makes clear that learning and growth of both those involved are intertwined and interdependent and that mutual learning and growth enrich and strengthen the relationship. It is concluded that the narrative illustrates a number of complex relational processes that are difficult to elucidate in quantitative studies and theoretical constructs. It offers deeper insight into the initiation and improvement of high‐quality mentoring relationships and emphasises the importance of further research into relational processes in mentoring relationships. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The role of human capital,motivation and supervisor sponsorship in predicting career success

Based on Turner's (1960) contest‐ and sponsored‐mobility systems, a comprehensive model of the determinants of career success was examined. Human capital and motivational variables represented the contest‐mobility system whereas leader–member exchange and supervisor career mentoring represented the sponsored‐mobility system. Results based on data from 245 supervisor–subordinate dyads indicated limited support for the contest‐mobility system and strong support for the sponsored‐mobility system. Interestingly, the two forms of sponsorship were differentially related to career outcomes. Specifically, leader–member exchange was positively related to salary progression, promotability, and career satisfaction. Career mentoring, however, was only related to promotability. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Do not like it when you need it the most: Examining the effect of manager ego depletion on managerial voice endorsement

This paper advances the understanding of managerial voice endorsement based on a self‐regulation perspective. We suggest that although managers might potentially benefit more from employees' upward voice when they are more depleted, they are paradoxically less likely to diligently process or endorse such voice under ego depletion. We draw from ego depletion theory and argue that when managers are more depleted of their self‐control resources, they will spend less cognitive effort in processing voice. In turn, they tend to reject employee voice due to status quo bias and confirmation bias. We further suggest that the detrimental effect of ego depletion on voice endorsement is stronger when the voicing employee is perceived as having low expertise. We conducted an experience sampling study surveying 62 managers about voice events they encounter at work over 10 days (Study 1) and an experiment with 198 managers (Study 2). These two studies support our hypotheses. We discuss the theoretical and practical implications of our findings.     

Capitalizing on proactivity for informal mentoring received during early career: The moderating role of core self‐evaluations

This paper examines the role of proactive personality in the receipt of informal mentoring received (i.e., psychosocial and career‐related mentoring) among a sample of 174 early career employees in China. The regression results indicated that networking behavior mediated the relationship between proactive personality and career‐related mentoring, whereas voice behavior mediated the relationship between proactive personality and psychosocial mentoring. Furthermore, core self‐evaluations moderated the aforementioned two indirect relationships such that they were stronger at higher levels of core self‐evaluations. Our analyses also showed that the moderating effects occurred at the first stage of the indirect relationships. We discuss the theoretical and practical implications of these findings. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Employee involvement and the middle manager: evidence from a survey of organizations

Although the literature on employee involvement suggests that some organizations experience significant benefits to employee attitudes and productivity, the results from individual studies vary widely. This study focuses on those factors that may mediate the success or failure of employee involvement practices, especially the role played by middle managers. A postal survey of 155 organizations examined the perceived outcomes of different employee involvement practices and the support or resistance attributed to middle managers. Hypothesized correlates of middle management resistance to employee involvement were examined. As hypothesized, positive outcomes of employee involvement were lower in organizations that experienced middle management resistance. The study supports the view that middle managers may resist employee involvement practices in response to threats to self interest (managerial job loss and delayering). However, lack of congruence between organizational systems and structures and the goals of EI and divided or unclear senior management support for EI were also found to be strongly related to middle management resistance. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Negative affectivity as a moderator of the form and magnitude of the relationship between felt accountability and job tension

The present research examined the influence of negative affectivity (NA) on the form of the felt accountability–job tension relationship. It was hypothesized that the nonlinear relationship between felt accountability and job tension would surface only for individuals low in NA, whereas the association between these constructs would be positive and linear for individuals high in NA. Data from two studies (N = 198; N = 118) provided support for the hypothesis. These results have important implications for science and practice. Conceptually, this study contributes to the stress, accountability, and personality literatures by demonstrating that accountability can positively or negatively predict tension, and that this association is dependent upon affective disposition. Practically, managers need to be cognizant of the fact that increases in accountability are not always associated with favorable attitudes when managing employees. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Social networks and the cognitive motivation to realize network opportunities: a study of managers' information gathering behaviors

Information gathering is central to a variety of organizational behavior theories, but researchers have suggested that our understanding of the actual information gathering behaviors of managers is underdeveloped. Social network characteristics are theorized to be a key determinant of information gathering behaviors, but social network research has been criticized for: (1) not measuring the intervening mechanisms by which network characteristics are theorized to have their effects and (2) not considering how actors' motivation affects what network benefits are realized. This article addresses these concerns through an empirical study of the actual information gathering behaviors of managers. It posits that individual differences in a personality variable called need for cognition capture differences in actors' cognitive motivation to realize the potential information benefits that exist in their social networks. Results show that network characteristics do affect information benefits, but these effects are stronger for managers motivated to take advantage of them. These findings both support social capital theory and suggest the important role that personality can play in augmenting social network analyses. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Constellations and careers: toward understanding the effects of multiple developmental relationships

This paper examines the effects of individuals' primary and multiple developmental relationships in a longitudinal study of the careers of lawyers. By juxtaposing the effects of the primary developmental relationship with those of individuals' sets or ‘constellations’ of developmental relationships, the present study lends insight into if and when these two perspectives on mentoring yield different results regarding the effects of mentoring on protégé career outcomes. The findings from the present study show that while the quality of one's primary developer affects short‐term career outcomes such as work satisfaction and intentions to remain with one's firm, it is the composition and quality of an individual's entire constellation of developmental relationships that account for long‐run protégé career outcomes such as organizational retention and promotion. Further, results from the present study provide evidence that the constellation perspective explains greater variance with respect to protégé career outcomes than does the primary or more traditional perspective on mentoring. Implications for research on mentoring, developmental relationships, and careers are discussed. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

South Korean managerial reactions to voicing discontent: The effects of employee attitude and employee communication styles

Using a scenario‐based experiment, this study examined how employee attitude and employee communication styles affected managers' reactions to employees' objections to a company policy. In the experiment, employee attitude (cynical versus trusting) and employee communication styles (aggressive versus diplomatic) were manipulated, and managers' reactions to voicing discontent were assessed through a questionnaire. Based on a sample of 185 middle managers working in various organizations in South Korea, the results showed that managers were more likely to engage in social undermining and were less likely to provide social support when cynical (rather than trusting) employees objected to a company policy. Also, attributed motives (i.e., personal attack and health concern) fully mediated the relationship between employee attitude and social support and social undermining. In addition, managers more likely attributed the objection to moral concerns when trusting (rather than cynical) employees communicated in an aggressive manner. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.