Experimental assessment of wind erosion after soil stabilization treatments at Eneabba,Western Australia

Wind tunnel experiments on rehabilitation surfaces at Eneabba, Western Australia evaluated the techniques used by Associated Minerals Consolidated Ltd. (AMC) and Allied Eneabba Ltd. (AEL) to stabilize regions being revegetated following heavy mineral sand mining. Newly landscaped areas proved to be the most erodible, beginning to erode at 9 m sec⁻¹ and producing a soil flux of 10 kg m⁻¹ min⁻¹ at 18 m sec⁻¹ wind speeds. Sandier, more organically-rich, surfaces in the rehabilitation areas were somewhat less erodible with losses of only 2 kg m⁻¹ min⁻¹ at wind speeds of 18 m sec⁻¹. The mining companies use various nurse crops and top dressing mulch for surface stabilization. Rows of oats, sparse plantings of the grass cultivar “SUDAX” (Dekalb ST6) supplied by Westfarmers Ltd. and applications of Terolas, a cold, bituminous surface binding material supplied by Shell Co. of Australia Ltd., all proved successful in reducing wind erosion in this semi-arid region where more than 25% of summer days experience winds greater than 8 m sec⁻¹.     

Wind Characteristics of Mesquite Streets in the Northern Chihuahuan Desert, New Mexico, USA

Past research has shown that the most important areas for active sand movement in the northern part of the Chihuahuan Desert are mesquite-dominated desert ecosystems possessing sandy soil texture. The most active sand movement in the mesquite-dominated ecosystems has been shown to take place on elongated bare soil patches referred to as “streets”. Aerodynamic properties of mesquite streets eroded by wind should be included in explaining how mesquite streets are more emissive sand sources than surrounding desert land. To understand the effects of wind properties, we measured them at two flat mesquite sites having highly similar soil textures but very different configurations of mesquite. The differences in wind properties at the two sites were caused by differences of size, orientation, and porosity of the mesquite, along with the presence of mesquite coppice dunes (sand dunes stabilized by mesquites growing in the dune and on its surface) found only at one of the two sites. Wind direction, u_* (friction velocity), z₀ (aerodynamic roughness height) and D (zero plane displacement height) were estimated for 15-m tower and 3-m mast data. These aerodynamic data allowed us to distinguish five categories with differing potentials for sediment transport. Sediment transport for the five categories varied from unrestricted, free transport to virtually no transport caused by vegetation protection from wind forces. In addition, “steering” of winds below the level of the tops of mesquite bushes and coppice dunes allowed longer parallel wind durations and increased wind erosion for streets that aligned roughly SW–NE. U.S. Government right to retain a non-exclusive royalty-free licence in and to any copyright is acknowledged.     

Evaluation of the QUIC-URB fast response urban wind model for a cubical building array and wide building street canyon

This paper describes the QUIC-URB fast response urban wind modeling tool and evaluates it against wind tunnel data for a 7 × 11 cubical building array and wide building street canyon. QUIC-URB is based on the Röckle diagnostic wind modeling strategy that rapidly produces spatially resolved wind fields in urban areas and can be used to drive urban dispersion models. Röckle-type models do not solve transport equations for momentum or energy; rather, they rely heavily on empirical parameterizations and mass conservation. In the model-experiment comparisons, we test two empirical building flow parameterizations within the QUIC-URB model: our implementation of the standard Röckle (SR) algorithms and a set of modified Röckle (MR) algorithms. The MR model attempts to build on the strengths of the SR model and introduces additional physically based, but simple parameterizations that significantly improve the results in most regions of the flow for both test cases. The MR model produces vortices in front of buildings, on rooftops and within street canyons that have velocities that compare much more favorably to the experimental results. We expect that these improvements in the wind field will result in improved dispersion calculations in built environments.     

Denitrification in bottom sediment near oil production facilities off the Louisiana Gulf Coast

There is little information on denitrification in Gulf of Mexico bottom sediment. Potential denitrification rates in surface sediment were measured along transects legs extending 0–800 m from two offshore oil production platforms. The average potential denitrification ranged from approximately 50 mg N m^?2 d^?1 in surface sediment near the platforms to 15 mg N m^?2 d^?1 in sediment 800 m from the platforms. Measured denitrification rates were correlated to a higher organic matter content in sediment nearer the platforms. This research examined only a small component of nitrogen processing in Gulf of Mexico sediment. Additional research should examine the effect of nitrogen loading and temporal and spatial variability on denitrification rate.     

Estimation of the surface stress from the streamwise pressure gradient: The Kármán Integral Momentum Equation revisited

A method is developed to estimate the stress at the surface in a portable wind tunnel for wind erosion studies. The boundary layer height and the pressure gradient are used in a simple expression from the Kármán Integral Momentum Equation. Values of friction velocity u _* are within 10% of experimental values obtained through correlation techniques, including measurements of differential pressures with the Murdoch Turbulence Probe MTP and the X-wire, hot-wire anemometer XWA. Wind velocity and stress profiles reveal logarithmic trends and a constant stress layer near the surface in the DAWA portable wind tunnel. Realignment of the statistics with the mean wind is essential.     

A high resolution measurement of the morning ABL transition using distributed temperature sensing and an unmanned aircraft system

We used an unmanned aircraft system (UAS) to lift and suspend distributed temperature sensing (DTS) technologies to observe the onset of an early morning transition from stable to unstably stratified atmospheric conditions. DTS employs a fiber optic cable interrogated by laser light, and uses the temperature dependent Raman scattering phenomenon and the speed of light to obtain a discrete spatial measurement of the temperature along the cable. The UAS/DTS combination yielded observations of temperature in the lower atmosphere with high resolution (1 s and 0.1 m) and extent (85 m) that revealed the detailed processes that occurred over a single morning transition. The experimental site was selected on the basis of previous experiments and long term data records; which indicate that diurnal boundary layer development and wind sectors are predictable and consistent. The data showed a complex interplay of motions that occur during the morning transition that resulted in propagation and growth of unstable wave modes. We observed a rapid cooling of the air aloft (layer above the strong vertical temperature gradient) layer directly after sunrise due to vertical mixing followed by an erosion of the strong gradient at the stable layer top. Midway through the transition, unstable wave modes were observed that are consistent with Kelvin–Helmholtz motions. These motions became amplified through the later stages of the transition.     

Numerical and wind tunnel modeling on the windbreak effectiveness to control the aeolian erosion of conical stockpiles

There are many industrial sites where open aggregate conical piles exist to store granular materials, like coal, industrial residuals, or other minerals. Usually these storage piles are placed in open areas, making them susceptible to wind erosion, which can create health, environmental, and/or economical concerns. It is common to minimize the dust emission through the placement of windbreaks in the vicinity of the storage piles, which reduces the wind speed in the vicinity of the pile’s surface. In this work, some experimental results from a wind tunnel study on the erosion of a conical sand pile, exposed or protected by a fence with porosities of 0, 70, and 83%, are shown. For the sheltered cases, the windbreak was placed at several distances from the pile’s leading edge, ranging from H to 4H, where H is the initial height of the non-eroded pile. The evolution of the shape of the sand pile is shown, at different instances in time, and the pile deformation quantified, using a novel experimental setup developed for wind erosion studies. This information might be regarded as a useful dataset for the benchmark of computational models aiming to produce the transient simulation of the aeolian erosion of stockpiles. The CFD results are comprised of the modeling of several experimental scenarios. The computational results for the surface wind velocity show a good correlation with the initial deformation of the pile. Based on the results, the isocontours of (u _s /u _r ) presented might be regarded as a good basis for the estimation of the pile shear velocity.     

Morphological cells in the Ragusa littoral (Sicily, Italy)

Geomorphologic information, topographic maps (dated 1967), aerial photographs (dated 1999 and 2008), and spatial analysis procedures were used to investigate a 90 km long coastal sector in South Sicily (Italy). Information was obtained on coastal erosion/accretion areas, general sediment circulation pattern and littoral cell distribution. Human-made structures and natural headlands constituted important artificial limits dividing littoral in morphological cells. Ports and harbours were observed at Scoglitti, Punta Secca, Marina di Ragusa, Donnalucata and Pozzallo. Most of them worked as “transit” limits which interrupted predominant, eastward directed sedimentary transport, this way generating accretion in updrift (west) side of mentioned structures and erosion in downdrift (east) side. During the 1967–2008 period, about 62,000 m² and 42,000 m² of beach surface were respectively formed updrift of Scoglitti and Donnalucata ports. The construction of Pozzallo port gave rise to the formation of a “convergent” limit which favoured large accretion (94,000 m²) east of port structure. Most important natural structures were observed at Punta Zafaglione, P. Braccetto and Cava d’Aliga. The knowledge of littoral cell distribution acquires a great importance for appropriate management of coastal erosion processes which may be mitigated installing by-passing systems in ports and harbours and carrying out nourishment works in eroding areas, often located downdrift of ports and harbours (when these structures work as transit limits) and in central part of littoral cells (when these structures work as convergent limits).     

Suppressed recovery of plant community composition and biodiversity on dredged fill of a hurricane-induced inlet through a barrier island

In September 2003, Hurricane Isabel created an inlet over 500 m wide and 10 m deep that connected the Atlantic Ocean and Pamlico Sound. This breach was subsequently filled with sediments dredged from the adjacent sound. The purpose of this study was to determine if the barrier island terrestrial plant communities were naturally re-establishing through primary succession. In 2006–2008, we compared plant communities, soil carbon and nitrogen, and Aeolian transport of sediments in undisturbed back-dunes, undisturbed shrub thickets, putative back-dunes, and putative shrub thickets. We found that species richness and evenness were low on the filled area relative to adjacent plant communities that had persisted through the storm. Plants on the filled area were almost entirely limited to a band of primarily Spartina patens found at the margin of the sound and there were no signs of establishing the typical zonation of back dune grasses, shrubs, and salt marsh. Evaluation of soil quality suggests that nutrients and organic material are not limiting recovery. Aeolian transport, however, was demonstrably higher across the filled area, where no dense stands of taller plants buffered the airflow. Plant re-establishment is suppressed by wind erosion inhibiting deposition of seeds. Recovery of the site will likely depend on the rhizomatous spread of S. patens from the sound shore. S. patens can then potentially facilitate the colonization of other species by buffering the wind and trapping seeds of other plants. Ironically, this slow recovery may benefit federally threatened bird species that require sparse vegetation for nesting success.     

Effects of sand movement by wind on nematodes and soil-borne fungi in coastal foredunes

In stabilized dunesAmmophila arenaria (marram grass) degenerates due to a process involving soil-borne pathogens and parasites. This leads to exposure of the sand surface so that wind erosion may create blowouts.Ammophila rejuvenates on the edges of the blowouts, where the sand has accumulated. We tested the hypothesis that such rejuvenation of plants may be related to a reduction of the plant-parasitic nematodes and fungal propagules during the process of wind-driven transport. Field measurements in blowouts during storm events indicated that the drifted sand contained relatively low numbers of plant pathogenic fungi and plant-parasitic nematodes. A wind tunnel experiment showed that drifting sand may indeed reduce the numbers of fungi and nematodes. Although most fungi were attached to sand particles, they were also affected by the wind-borne sand movement. Sand that had been deposited by wind was made up of a larger proportion of large-sized particles. In our experiment the relatively small particles were lost during transport. Stirring the soil (part of the forces of natural winds) by mixing for 15 min. with a propeller mixer at 1500 rpm significantly reduced the number of nematodes and fungi. Both sand movement in the wind tunnel and intensive stirring of the sand enhanced the growth ofAmmophila test plants in a bioassay. It was concluded that in wind-blown sand the pathogen inoculum is reduced. Therefore, serious consideration should be given to allowing controlled reactivation of blowouts to rejuvenate decliningAmmophila in stabilized foredunes. Implications for dune management are briefly discussed. Nomenclature: van der Meijden (1990) for vascular plants. Nematodes were identified to the genus level according to Bongers (1988). The allocation of nematodes to feeding groups was according to Yeates et al. (1993). Nomenclature of fungi according to Domsch et al. (1980) was used throughout this study except forFusarium. Species of the latter genus were identified according to Nelson et al. (1983).     

Rates of shoreline change along the coast of Bangladesh

Bangladesh, at the confluence of the sediment-laden Ganges and Brahmaputra Rivers, supports an enormous and rapidly growing population (>140 million in 2011), across low-lying alluvial and delta plains that have accumulated over the past few thousand years. It has been identified as one of the most vulnerable places in the world to the impacts of climate change and sea-level rise. Although abundant sediment supply has resulted in accretion on some parts of the coast of Bangladesh, others are experiencing rapid erosion. We report a systematic assessment of rates of shoreline change over a 20-year period from 1989 to 2009, using Landsat satellite images with pixel resolution of 30 m on the ground. A Band ratio approach, using Band-5 divided by Band-2, discriminated the water line on images that were largely cloud-free, adequately registered, and at comparable tidal stages. Rates of shoreline change were calculated for >16,000 transects generated at 50 m intervals along the entire mainland coastline (>1,100 km) and major islands, using the End Point Rate (EPR) method in the Digital Shoreline Analysis System (DSAS) extension in ArcGIS®. Erosion characterises most of the seaward margin of the Sundarbans in western Bangladesh. Retreat rates of up to 20 m/yr are typical, with little evidence that local devastation of the mangrove fringe by Cyclone Sidr in November 2007 had resulted in uncharacteristic long-term rates of retreat where it made landfall. Erosion exceeded accretion in the Barguna Patuakhali coastal zone, most of which eroded at up to 20 m/yr, but with truncation of the southern tip of the Patharghata Upazila at up to 100 m/yr. In Bhola, erosion at rates of up to 120 m/yr were observed along much of the coast, but in the Noakhali Feni coastal zone, similar rates of erosion were balanced by rapid accretion of the main promontory by more than 600 m/yr. Rates of change were more subdued in the Chittagong and Cox’s Bazar coastal zones of southeast Bangladesh. Islands in the Meghna estuary were especially dynamic; Hatiya Island accreted along some of its shoreline by 50 km² between 1989 and 2009, but lost 65 km² through erosion elsewhere, resulting in the island moving south. Similar trends were observed on adjacent islands. The overall area changed relatively little across the entire coastline over the 20-year period with accretion of up to 315 km², countered by erosion of about 307 km².     

Impacts of vineyard area dynamics on soil erosion in a Mediterranean catchment (1950-2011)

The Mediterranean basin has undergone widespread land cover change. Urbanization of coastal areas, land abandonment of steeper slopes, and agricultural intensification in alluvial plains are recurrent themes. The objective of this study was to examine how vineyard land cover changes have affected agricultural soil erosion in a 50 year period (1950–2011). The study area covers a 235 km² catchment located near the Gulf of St Tropez. Aerial photographs were used to map land cover in 1950, 1982, 2003 and 2011, and the RUSLE soil erosion model was run to estimate soil erosion.

Between 1950 and 2011, vineyard went from about 2,426 ha to 1,561 ha. Mean soil erosion increased as vineyard slopes became steeper (11.8 T ha^?1, 13.2 T ha^?1, 14.4 T ha^?1 and 13.5 T ha^?1 for 1950, 1982, 2003 and 2011). Total erosion decreased after 1982: 28,621 T y^?1 in 1950, 29,030 T y^?1 in 1982, 22,848 T y^?1 in 2003, and 21,074 T y^?1 in 2011. Total soil loss in 2011 is about 75% of values in 1950–1982, so impacts on water pollution and channel dredging have evolved positively over time.     

雅鲁藏布江源区土壤侵蚀特征

以雅鲁藏布江源区所在的马泉河流域为研究区域,运用遥感和G IS技术对土壤侵蚀及其空间分布的地貌特征进行研究,结果表明:轻度及其以上强度土壤侵蚀面积为18 933.33 km2,占源区面积的71.86%;冻融侵蚀是土壤侵蚀的主要形式,占源区面积的82.53%;风力侵蚀占5.33%,集中分布在河谷宽谷段;水力侵蚀面积所占比例较小,以微度侵蚀为主。土壤侵蚀的地理分布规律受海拔高度的影响较大,垂直分异明显,主要发生在坡度等级较低、地势较平坦的地区。轻度以上冻融侵蚀主要分布在海拔4 600~5 200 m,且有20%以上集中在0°~5°坡地;风力侵蚀主要分布在海拔4 600~5 600 m、0°~25°坡地。极强烈风力侵蚀以西南坡向最大,南、西、东南坡和平地分布较少。强烈风力侵蚀以平地所占比例最大,东北和西2个坡向次之。坡向对冻融侵蚀影响较小。     

Forest structure and light regimes following moderate wind storms: implications for multi-cohort management.

Moderate-severity disturbances appear to be common throughout much of North America, but they have received relatively little detailed study compared to catastrophic disturbances and small gap dynamics. In this study, we examined the immediate impact of moderate-intensity wind storms on stand structure, opening sizes, and light regimes in three hemlock-hardwood forests of northeastern Wisconsin. These were compared to three stands managed by single-tree and group selection, the predominant forest management system for northern hardwoods in the region. Wind storms removed an average of 41% of the stand basal area, compared to 27% removed by uneven-aged harvests, but both disturbances removed trees from a wide range of size classes. The removal of nearly half of the large trees by wind in two old-growth stands caused partial retrogression to mature forest structure, which has been hypothesized to be a major disturbance pathway in the region. Wind storms resulted in residual stand conditions that were much more heterogeneous than in managed stands. Gap sizes ranged from less than 10 m2 up to 5000 m2 in wind-disturbed stands, whereas the largest opening observed in managed stands was only 200 m2. Wind-disturbed stands had, on average, double the available solar radiation at the forest floor compared to managed stands. Solar radiation levels were also more heterogeneous in wind-disturbed stands, with six times more variability at small scales (0.1225 ha) and 15 times more variability at the whole-stand level. Modification of uneven-aged management regimes to include occasional harvests of variable intensity and spatial pattern may help avoid the decline in species diversity that tends to occur after many decades of conventional uneven-aged management. At the same time, a multi-cohort system with these properties would retain a high degree of average crown cover, promote structural heterogeneity typical of old-growth forests, and maintain dominance by late-successional species.     

Diffusional mass transfer coefficient at the water–sediment interface for wind-induced flow in very shallow lagoons

Very shallow lagoons that are a few centimeters deep are common in the arid Andes of Northern Chile, Argentina, Bolivia and Perú. The dynamics of these lagoons are dominated by the water–sediment interface (WSI) and strong afternoon winds. Although many studies have examined the diffusional mass transfer coefficients (k _t ) of open channel flows, estimates for wind-induced flows are still unknown. The aim of this article is to propose and validate an analytical expression for computing k _t at the WSI for wind-induced flow. The laboratory measurements were conducted in a wind tunnel with a water tank of variable depth located at its downwind end. Natural muddy sediments were placed in the middle of the tank so that the dissolved oxygen (DO) was consumed in the sediments. The diffusional mass transfer coefficient that characterizes the DO uptake in the sediment was obtained from DO micro-profiles measured with an OX-25 Unisense microelectrode. Water velocity profiles were measured with a 2D side-view Sontek acoustic doppler velocimetry (ADV), and the wind shear velocity was computed based on wind velocity profiles that were measured with an Extech hot-wire anemometer. A total of 16 experiments were conducted with different water depths and wind shear stresses. The constants required by the model were determined from these experiments, and the analytical expression was successfully validated by the laboratory observations. The analytical expression obtained for computing k _t was also validated with field observations that were conducted in October, 2012, in Salar del Huasco, Northern Chile (20.274° S, 68.883° W, 3800 m above sea level). The comparison between the observed and predicted values of k _t provides a determination coefficient of r ² = 0.48 and a p value < 0.01. The results show that the value of k _t for wind-induced flow is proportional to the wind shear velocity and the inverse of the Reynolds number of the wind-induced current.     

Computational fluid dynamics assessment of damaging wind loads on the One Indiana Square tower

In this paper, we simulated damaging wind loads on the One Indiana Square tower in Indianapolis due to the storm of April 2nd 2006. We followed recommended practice guidelines for this urban wind modeling. First, a test case, Aerodynamics of Commonwealth Advisory Aeronautical Council (CAARC) building were modeled and simulated to compare with a publicly available experiment and other computational studies. Based on the modeling parameters in the CAARC study, then, as a clean building configuration, we modeled the One Indiana tower alone without surrounding buildings. Finally, the flow field around the tower including nearby downtown buildings were simulated. We used the Fluent flow analysis software tools. The domain was meshed using unstructured grids, the first boundary layer grid element being 10 cm (4 in.) and 15 cm (6 in.) in height from the tower and the ground for the CAARC building and the One Indiana tower, respectively. Two different wind directions of 260 \(^\circ \) and 280 \(^\circ \) at 137 km/h (85 mph) speed were considered to estimate wind loads on the One Indiana tower façades. Simulated pressure distributions on the tower and flow patterns over the downtown buildings were discussed to draw conclusions about the mechanism of extreme wind load that caused the damage. The simulations revealed that suction forces are almost twice higher hence more damaging at the corners of the west façades than straight wind. It was also seen in the simulation results that upstream building topology, specifically Chase, One America, and some low-rise towers, augmented the actual wind load unfavorably on the One Indiana Square tower. Although this study presents a specific case, the applicability of its findings are of more general interest. Similar wind events are common especially during storm seasons both in urban and suburban areas. In similar incidents, one can follow the same procedure to analyze their problems as certain modeling guidelines were followed in this study.     

A review of source tracking techniques for fine sediment within a catchment

Excessive transport of fine sediment, and its associated pollutants, can cause detrimental impacts in aquatic environments. It is therefore important to perform accurate sediment source apportionment to identify hot spots of soil erosion. Various tracers have been adopted, often in combination, to identify sediment source type and its spatial origin; these include fallout radionuclides, geochemical tracers, mineral magnetic properties and bulk and compound-specific stable isotopes. In this review, the applicability of these techniques to particular settings and their advantages and limitations are reviewed. By synthesizing existing approaches, that make use of multiple tracers in combination with measured changes of channel geomorphological attributes, an integrated analysis of tracer profiles in deposited sediments in lakes and reservoirs can be made. Through a multi-scale approach for fine sediment tracking, temporal changes in soil erosion and sediment load can be reconstructed and the consequences of changing catchment practices evaluated. We recommend that long-term, as well as short-term, monitoring of riverine fine sediment and corresponding surface and subsurface sources at nested sites within a catchment are essential. Such monitoring will inform the development and validation of models for predicting dynamics of fine sediment transport as a function of hydro-climatic and geomorphological controls. We highlight that the need for monitoring is particularly important for hilly catchments with complex and changing land use. We recommend that research should be prioritized for sloping farmland-dominated catchments.     

Preliminary assessment of surface soil lead concentrations in Melbourne,Australia

Urban soils in many cities have been found to be contaminated with lead from past usage of leaded petrol, deteriorating lead-based exterior paints and industrial sources. Currently, the spatial distribution of soil lead concentrations in the Melbourne metropolitan area is unknown. The objective of this study was to perform a preliminary assessment of the spatial distributions of the surface soil lead (Pb) concentrations in the Melbourne metropolitan area, Australia. Fifty-eight surface soil samples were collected at a depth of 0–2 cm along three linear transects oriented across the Melbourne metropolitan area. Surface soil samples were also collected at a higher density in five Melbourne suburbs. Soil cores (0–50 cm) were collected in four locations, soil transects were collected at intervals with distance away from the roadway (0–50 m) in two inner city parks, and one control soil sample was collected in a rural setting. The median soil Pb concentration of the soil transect samples was 173 mg/kg (range 32–710 mg/kg), and the median soil Pb concentration of the five suburbs was 69 mg/kg (range 9–1750 mg/kg). The suburb of Footscray had the highest soil Pb concentration with a median soil Pb concentration of 192 mg/kg (range 40–1750 mg/kg). Soil Pb concentrations were generally higher nearest the centre of the Melbourne metropolitan area and in the west of Melbourne and lower in the outer suburbs to the east and north of the city centre. Soil Pb concentrations decreased with distance from roadways in the two transects taken from urban parks, and soil lead decreased with depth in the four soil cores. The soil Pb concentrations in the Melbourne metropolitan area appear to be lower than soil lead concentrations observed in inner city areas of Sydney New South Wales (NSW) and Newcastle NSW. The spatial extent of the soil Pb hazard remains undefined in portions of the Melbourne metropolitan area.     

Wind Tunnel Experiments and Numerical Simulation of Snow Drifting around an Avalanche Protecting Dam

To learn about wind flow and snow drifting around avalanche dams, experiments were done in the Jules Verne Climatic Wind Tunnel. The paper reports the results from numerical wind flow simulations that were done to support the findings from the wind tunnel. Satisfying the model similitude criteria for the wind tunnel configuration was difficult due to the inevitable small geometric scale of the model, while on the contrary the snow drifting conditions in the facilities were full scale. By comparing numerical wind flow results of full scale and model scale dams with the snow pattern observed in the wind tunnel, it was possible to conclude that albeit poor model similitude, the snowdrifts on the windward side of the wind tunnel model are likely to indicate the full scale natural situation.