KMnO_4存在下利用水热法由牛粪制备水热炭及其吸附Pb(Ⅱ)性能

以牛粪为生物质原料,在水溶液和KMn O4溶液中分别制备出牛粪水热炭(HC)和改性牛粪水热炭(MHC),对其灰分、元素组成、形貌、表面基团和织构性质进行了表征,并采用批量吸附实验研究了KMn O4改性对牛粪水热炭吸附Pb(Ⅱ)性能的影响.结果表明,KMn O4改性使牛粪水热炭的灰分和氧含量升高,碳、氢、氮的含量降低,芳香性和极性增强,并使比表面积和孔体积显著提高;在p H=4.0—7.0范围内,MHC对Pb(Ⅱ)的吸附率均高于未改性的水热炭;对Pb(Ⅱ)的吸附过程均遵循准二级动力学模型,KMn O4改性可改善吸附动力学性能;未改性的牛粪水热炭对Pb(Ⅱ)的吸附符合Freundlich等温方程,而MHC的吸附遵循Langmuir等温方程,其饱和吸附量随温度的升高而增大,25℃时其饱和吸附量为82.25 mg·g-1.对MHC吸附过程的ΔGθ、ΔHθ和ΔSθ的计算结果表明,该过程是自发的且固液界面自由度降低的放热过程.     

改性丝胶生物吸附剂对Ag~+的选择性吸附

以蚕丝丝胶(SS)为基材,通过接枝2,5-二硫二脲制备了改性丝胶生物吸附剂(SO),探讨了影响生物吸附的因素,并对比研究了不同体系中生物吸附剂对Ag~+的吸附行为.结果表明,在p H 1.0—6.0范围,吸附率随着p H升高而增大.相同条件下,SO吸附容量和吸附率明显优于SS,在单组分Ag~+溶液中,p H5.0时,SO和SS对Ag~+的吸附率分别为96.2%和57.8%,吸附容量分别为20.8 mg·g~(-1)和12.5 mg·g~(-1).在三组分(Ag~+-Cu~(2+)-Zn~(2+))及五组分(Ag~+-Cu~(2+)-Zn~(2+)-Ni~(2+)-Pb~(2+))溶液中,SO对Ag~+显示出良好的吸附选择性.p H5.0时,SO对其它金属离子很少吸附,而对Ag~+的吸附率分别高达95.8%和93.7%;SS尽管对其它贱金属离子吸附率也较低,但其对Ag~+的吸附率仅为25.4%和23.7%.吸附动力学表明,吸附剂对Ag~+的吸附符合准二级动力学模型,吸附过程为化学吸附,吸附过程活化能Ea(SO)=43.23 k J·mol~(-1),Ea(SS)=59.32 k J·mol~(-1).吸附热力学表明吸附过程为放热的自发过程.25℃吸附平衡时,Ag~+在固液两相的分配系数为K_D~Θ(SO)=5111.K_D~Θ(SS)=273.SO对Ag~+吸附机理主要为配位作用,粒子内扩散为吸附过程的速控步骤.     

芦苇生物炭对水中铅的吸附特性

将芦苇秸秆在500℃下缺氧热解4 h制备成生物炭.采用批量平衡实验法,考察溶液p H值、生物炭投加量、溶液离子强度以及生物炭灰分对芦苇生物炭吸附水中Pb~(2+)的影响.结果表明:溶液p H值在2.0—5.5范围内,芦苇生物炭对Pb~(2+)的吸附量随着p H值升高而增加;生物炭最佳投加量为1.8 g·L-1,Pb~(2+)的去除率为96.6%;溶液中Na~+、Ca~(2+)的存在会抑制芦苇生物炭对Pb~(2+)的吸附;去除灰分后的生物炭对Pb~(2+)的吸附量降低.不同温度下的吸附等温线更符合Langmiur方程.在283、298、313 K下的最大实际吸附量分别为21.89、24.06、24.95 mg·g~(-1).热力学研究结果为ΔGθ0、ΔHθ0和ΔSθ0,说明该吸附是自发、熵增的吸热过程.吸附动力学线性拟合结果更符合假二级动力学方程.芦苇生物炭吸附前后的红外光谱和XRD衍射谱图分析表明吸附过程存在离子交换和阳离子-π作用.去除灰分的生物炭吸附Pb~(2+)后溶液中Na~+、K~+、Ca~(2+)、Mg~(2+)浓度升高,表明离子交换是主要吸附机制.     

二氧化钛改性油页岩渣对水溶液中亚甲基蓝和六价铬的吸附

以油页岩渣及其二氧化钛改性材料为吸附剂,探究它们去除水溶液中亚甲基蓝和六价铬的能力.通过实验,控制溶液的pH值、温度、初始浓度和接触时间,观察吸附效果变化特征,研究其动力学和热力学性能.实验表明,改性油页岩渣吸附亚甲基蓝和六价铬的吸附率是未改性的2—3倍,且改性油页岩渣对亚甲基蓝的吸附率可达97%,对六价铬的吸附率不到25%.吸附亚甲基蓝时,pH值越大,吸附效果越好;而吸附六价铬时,最适pH值为4.改性油页岩渣吸附亚甲基蓝实验符合准二阶动力学方程,计算得反应活化能为13.29 kJ.mol-1,表明此过程主要是物理吸附.在热力学方面,由范特霍夫方程计算得ΔG〈0、ΔH〉0,表明此过程自发吸热,可见此过程还伴有化学吸附.Langmuir和Freundlich等温模型拟合结果表明,Langmuir模型数据拟合甚佳,R2=0.9999,说明改性油页岩渣吸附亚甲基蓝是单分子层吸附.二氧化钛改性油页岩渣经7次回收利用后,对亚甲基蓝的吸附效果仅减少约1.5%.     

微波辅助HNO3改性竹炭对Cu2+的吸附性能

以竹炭为原料,采用HNO3(NA)作为改性药剂,通过微波辅助加热的方法对竹炭进行改性;运用Boehm滴定、扫描电子显微镜(SEM)、电子能谱(EDAX)和红外光谱(FTIR)对改性竹炭进行了表征;考察了pH、时间、温度和离子强度等对改性竹炭吸附Cu2+的影响.研究结果表明,微波辅助硝酸改性使得竹炭表面的羧基、酚羟基、内酯基等酸性含氧官能团的数量有所增加;改性竹炭对Cu2+吸附更符合Langmuir等温方程,吸附为自发的吸热过程;吸附动力学符合准二级动力学方程;溶液离子强度增大不利于其对Cu2+的吸附.     

生物模板法制备纳米羟基磷灰石去除水体中的三氯生

以棉花作为生物模板制备出具有棉花形貌的纳米羟基磷灰石(HAP),并将其运用于水体中三氯生的吸附去除研究。采用X射线粉末衍射仪、傅里叶红外、扫描电镜、透射电镜表征了吸附前后HAP的物相组成、官能团、形貌和颗粒尺寸变化。考察了初始pH、时间和温度对HAP吸附三氯生的影响。动力学数据符合准二级动力学模型,颗粒内扩散不是唯一的限速步骤;平衡吸附数据符合Langmuir等温吸附模型;热力学参数吉布斯自由能(ΔG0)、焓变(ΔH0)、熵变(ΔS0)值揭示三氯生吸附至HAP上是一个自发吸热的过程。对比其他吸附剂,HAP具有高吸附量且环境友好的优势。     

镧和阳离子表面活性剂联合改性活性炭对水中磷酸盐和硝酸盐的吸附作用

采用镧(La)和阳离子表面活性剂十六烷基三甲基氯化铵(HDTMA-Cl)对活性炭进行联合改性,并考察了La和HDTMA联合改性活性炭(La-HDTMA改性活性炭)对水中磷酸盐和硝酸盐的吸附性能.实验结果表明,La-HDTMA改性活性炭对磷酸盐和硝酸盐具备一定的吸附去除能力.La-HDTMA改性活性炭对水中磷酸盐和硝酸盐的吸附动力学过程符合准二级动力学模型,吸附平衡数据可以采用Langmuir、Freundlich和Dubinin-Radushkevich(D-R)等温吸附模型加以描述.根据Langmuir等温吸附模型计算得到的La-HDTMA改性活性炭对磷酸盐和硝酸盐最大吸附量分别为4.15 mg·g-1和11.2 mg·g-1.当p H值由4增加到8时,La-HDTMA改性活性炭对水中磷酸盐的吸附能力增加;当p H值超过8时,对磷酸盐的吸附能力则下降.LaHDTMA改性活性炭对水中硝酸盐的吸附能力随p H值的增加而下降.水中共存的Cl-、HCO-3和SO2-4等阴离子会抑制La-HDTMA改性活性炭对磷酸盐和硝酸盐的吸附.水中共存的硝酸盐会抑制La-HDTMA改性活性炭对磷酸盐的吸附,共存的磷酸盐亦会抑制La-HDTMA改性活性炭对硝酸盐的吸附.采用1 mol·L-1Na OH溶液可以使71%吸附剂上的磷酸盐解吸下来,采用1 mol·L-1的Na Cl溶液可以使97%吸附剂上的硝酸盐解吸下来.La-HDTMA改性活性炭对水中磷酸盐的吸附机制主要是阴离子交换、静电吸引、配位体交换作用和路易斯酸碱反应,对硝酸盐的吸附机制主要是阴离子交换和静电吸引作用.     

磁性Fe_3O_4/改性焦炭的制备及其对罗丹明B的吸附性能

以焦炭为原料、KOH为活化剂制备改性焦炭,采用原位氧化沉淀法制备纳米Fe_3O_4负载于改性焦炭表面上,制备出磁性复合材料,利用N2等温吸附(BET)、扫描电子显微镜(SEM)、傅里叶交换红外光谱(FTIR)、X射线衍射(XRD)、振动样品磁强计(VSM)等对其进行了表征,并研究了其对罗丹明B的吸附性能,系统考察了吸附动力学、吸附等温线、pH、吸附剂投加量对吸附性能的影响.结果表明,改性焦炭微孔结构发达,利于Fe_3O_4分散负载其表面上.Fe_3O_4/改性焦炭具有良好的磁性能和吸附性能,在2 h内对罗丹明B达到吸附平衡,吸附动力学符合准二级吸附动力学方程,等温吸附数据符合Langmuir模型,吸附是自发行为且为吸热反应.吸附剂在较宽的pH范围内有较高的吸附量,罗丹明B去除率可达98.32%.     

改性碳纳米管原始样品吸附亚甲基蓝的性能研究

利用直接制备的碳纳米管原始样品作为染料亚甲基蓝的吸附剂,采用次氯酸钠溶液对于碳纳米管原始样品进行表面修饰改性,改性处理后碳纳米管对亚甲基蓝吸附性较好,本工艺简单有效,所获得的吸附剂具有磁性,吸附过后用磁铁易于达到固液分离的效果.吸附性能结果表明:本吸附剂对水溶液中亚甲基蓝的吸附在60 min基本达到平衡,吸附过程符合准二级动力学模型(R2>0.99).改性后的磁性碳纳米管吸附亚甲基蓝的平衡吸附量qe与亚甲基蓝溶液的平衡浓度Ce的关系满足Langmuir(R2>0.99)、Freundlich(R2>0.91)以及Dubinin-Radushkevich(D-R)(R2>0.92)等温吸附模型.通过Langmuir模型计算可知改性磁性碳纳米管对亚甲基蓝的最大吸附容量为101.6 mg.g-1,由D-R模型计算结果可以推断,次氯酸钠改性后的磁性碳纳米管对水溶液中亚甲基蓝的吸附机理以化学吸附为主.     

山茶籽粉吸附亚甲基蓝的性能研究

为研究山茶籽粉对亚甲基蓝的吸附行为,对不同温度下(298、303、308、313、318K)的吸附数据分别用Langmuir、Freundlich和Dubinin-Radushkevish模式进行拟合,用伪一级动力学方程和伪二级动力学方程描述山茶籽粉对亚甲基蓝的吸附动力学过程,并计算了Gibbs自由能变(ΔGθ)、焓变(ΔHθ)和熵变(ΔSθ)等热力学函数.结果表明,山茶籽粉对亚甲基蓝的吸附能力随着温度的升高而降低;Langmuir方程更适合描述其吸附行为.Gibbs自由能变(ΔGθ)、焓变("Hθ)和熵变(ΔSθ)均小于零,说明此吸附过程是自发进行的、放热的、趋于有序的吸附过程.伪二级动力学方程更适用于描述山茶籽粉对亚甲基蓝的吸附动力学过程.     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

Rapid,recurring, structured survey versus bioblitz for generating biodiversity data and analysis with a multispecies abundance model

A bioblitz inexpensively and quickly generates biodiversity data, but bioblitzes are often conducted with haphazard, unreplicated sampling. Results tend to be taxonomically, geographically, or temporally biased, lack metadata, and consist of lists of observed taxa that do not enable further analyses or correction for imperfect detection. A rapid, recurring, structured survey (RRSS) uses a structured sampling design and temporal and spatial replication to survey randomly selected sites on a conservation property. We participated in a loosely structured bioblitz and a subsequent RRSS at Big Canoe Creek Nature Preserve in Springville (St. Clair County), Alabama (USA) to compare observed richness derived from the 2 survey approaches. The RRSS data structure enabled us to fit models that accounted for imperfect detection to estimate abundances, occupancy probabilities, and habitat associations. The loosely structured bioblitz data could not be used in such models. We present a new integrated multispecies abundance model that we applied to avian RRSS data. Our model extension enables estimation for the community, employs data augmentation to estimate the number of undetected species, and incorporates covariates. The RRSS generated a more comprehensive and less biased list of observed taxonomic richness than the loosely structured bioblitz (e.g., 73 vs. 45 bird species and 104 vs. 63 insect families from the RRSS vs. loosely structured bioblitz, respectively). Models fit to the RRSS data identified seasonal patterns in avian community composition and allowed for estimation of habitat–occupancy relationships for insect taxa. The RRSS protocol has potential for broad transferability as a standardized, quick, and inexpensive way to inventory biodiversity and estimate ecological parameters while providing an outreach opportunity.     

Compliance with and ecosystem function of biodiversity offsets in North American and European freshwaters

Land-use change via human development is a major driver of biodiversity loss. To reduce these impacts, billions of dollars are spent on biodiversity offsets. However, studies evaluating offset project effectiveness that examine components such as the overall compliance and function of projects remain rare. We reviewed 577 offsetting projects in freshwater ecosystems that included the metrics project size, type of aquatic system (e.g., wetland and creek), offsetting measure (e.g., enhancement, restoration, and creation), and an assessment of the projects’ compliance and functional success. Project information was obtained from scientific and government databases and gray literature. Despite considerable investment in offsetting projects, crucial problems persisted. Although compliance and function were related to each other, a high level of compliance did not guarantee a high degree of function. However, large projects relative to area had better function than small projects. Function improved when projects targeted productivity or specific ecosystem features and when multiple complementary management targets were in place. Restorative measures were more likely to achieve targets than creating entirely new ecosystems. Altogether the relationships we found highlight specific ecological processes that may help improve offsetting outcomes.     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.     

A palaeo-hydrogeological model for arsenic contamination in southern and south-east Asia

An argument is presented in which areas of natural arsenic contamination of modern groundwaters throughout Asia have a common origin. Arsenic originally accumulated in oceanic ferro-manganoan sediments of the eastern Palaeo-Tethys. This was further concentrated through oceanic crustal extinction in what later became the south-east Chinese accreted mineralised terrain. Proto-Himalayan uplift of this area created the palaeo-drainage systems of the Ganges – Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy, Mekong, and Red Rivers, with consequent headwater erosion of arsenic-rich sediments. Their downstream deposition as immature and easily redistributed Neogene sandstones, silts, and iron-rich clays has created secondary and tertiary reservoirs of adsorbed and authigenic arsenic, from which the current arsenic-rich groundwaters have evolved. Considering river basins within the above palaeo-hydrogeological framework provides a basis for assessing the risk of arsenic in groundwater basins of south and south-eastern Asia.     

Sequestration of cucurbitacin analogs by New and Old World chrysomelid leaf beetles in the tribe Luperini

Summary Two South American polyphagous leaf beetles,Diabrotica speciosa andCerotoma arcuata, selectively accumulated the bitter tasting compound 23,24-dihydrocucurbitacin D in their body after ingesting root tissues of cucurbit plants. Similarly, three Asian Cucurbitaceae-feeding specialists in the genusAulacophora were found to sequester the same compound. Cucurbitacin analogs were shown to deter feeding by a bird predator, indicating an allomonal role for these compounds in cucurbitacin-associated chrysomelid leaf beetles both of New and Old Worlds. The strong affinity to cucurbitacins, selective sequestration of the analogs and consequent protection from predators suggested an ecological adaptation mechanism developed in common among these two geographically isolated subtribes in the Luperini.     

Threats to intact tropical peatlands and opportunities for their conservation

Large, intact areas of tropical peatland are highly threatened at a global scale by the expansion of commercial agriculture and other forms of economic development. Conserving peatlands on a landscape scale, with their hydrology intact, is of international conservation importance to preserve their distinctive biodiversity and ecosystem services and maintain their resilience to future environmental change. We explored threats to and opportunities for conserving remaining intact tropical peatlands; thus, we excluded peatlands of Indonesia and Malaysia, where extensive deforestation, drainage, and conversion to plantations means conservation in this region can protect only small fragments of the original ecosystem. We focused on a case study, the Pastaza‐Marañón Foreland Basin (PMFB) in Peru, which is among the largest known intact tropical peatland landscapes in the world and is representative of peatland vulnerability. Maintenance of the hydrological conditions critical for carbon storage and ecosystem function of peatlands is, in the PMFB, primarily threatened by expansion of commercial agriculture linked to new transport infrastructure that is facilitating access to remote areas. There remain opportunities in the PMFB and elsewhere to develop alternative, more sustainable land‐use practices. Although some of the peatlands in the PMFB fall within existing legally protected areas, this protection does not include the most carbon‐dense (domed pole forest) areas. New carbon‐based conservation instruments (e.g., REDD+, Green Climate Fund), developing markets for sustainable peatland products, transferring land title to local communities, and expanding protected areas offer pathways to increased protection for intact tropical peatlands in Amazonia and elsewhere, such as those in New Guinea and Central Africa which remain, for the moment, broadly beyond the frontier of commercial development.     

Effects of Controlled Fire and Livestock Grazing on Bird Communities in East African Savannas

Abstract: In East Africa fire and grazing by wild and domestic ungulates maintain savannas, and pastoralists historically set fires and herded livestock through the use of temporary corrals called bomas. In recent decades traditional pastoral practices have declined, and this may be affecting biodiversity. We investigated the effects of prescribed fires and bomas on savanna bird communities in East Africa during the first and second dry seasons of the year (respectively before and after the rains that mark the onset of breeding for most birds). We compared abundance, richness, and community composition on 9‐ha burned plots, recently abandoned bomas, and control plots in the undisturbed matrix habitat over a 3‐year period. Generally, recently burned areas and abandoned bomas attracted greater densities of birds and had different community assemblages than the surrounding matrix. The effects of disturbances were influenced by interactions between primary productivity, represented by the normalized difference vegetation index, and time. Bird densities were highest and a greater proportion of species was observed on burned plots in the months following the fires. Drought conditions equalized bird densities across treatments within 1 year, and individuals from a greater proportion of species were more commonly observed on abandoned bomas. Yearly fluctuations in abundance were less pronounced on bomas than on burns, which indicate that although fire may benefit birds in the short term, bomas may have a more‐lasting positive effect and provide resources during droughts. Several Palearctic migrants were attracted to burned plots regardless of rainfall, which indicates continued fire suppression may threaten their already‐declining populations. Most notably, the paucity of birds observed on the controls suggests that the current structure of the matrix developed as a result of fire suppression. Traditional pastoralism appears critical to the maintenance of avian diversity in these savannas.     

Cost‐effective conservation of an endangered frog under uncertainty

How should managers choose among conservation options when resources are scarce and there is uncertainty regarding the effectiveness of actions? Well‐developed tools exist for prioritizing areas for one‐time and binary actions (e.g., protect vs. not protect), but methods for prioritizing incremental or ongoing actions (such as habitat creation and maintenance) remain uncommon. We devised an approach that combines metapopulation viability and cost‐effectiveness analyses to select among alternative conservation actions while accounting for uncertainty. In our study, cost‐effectiveness is the ratio between the benefit of an action and its economic cost, where benefit is the change in metapopulation viability. We applied the approach to the case of the endangered growling grass frog (Litoria raniformis), which is threatened by urban development. We extended a Bayesian model to predict metapopulation viability under 9 urbanization and management scenarios and incorporated the full probability distribution of possible outcomes for each scenario into the cost‐effectiveness analysis. This allowed us to discern between cost‐effective alternatives that were robust to uncertainty and those with a relatively high risk of failure. We found a relatively high risk of extinction following urbanization if the only action was reservation of core habitat; habitat creation actions performed better than enhancement actions; and cost‐effectiveness ranking changed depending on the consideration of uncertainty. Our results suggest that creation and maintenance of wetlands dedicated to L. raniformis is the only cost‐effective action likely to result in a sufficiently low risk of extinction. To our knowledge we are the first study to use Bayesian metapopulation viability analysis to explicitly incorporate parametric and demographic uncertainty into a cost‐effective evaluation of conservation actions. The approach offers guidance to decision makers aiming to achieve cost‐effective conservation under uncertainty.