Review of information on pesticide residues in the Canadian environment

Summary Pesticide residues in soil, water, food, wildlife and other media have been analysed in several monitoring studies. The purpose was to establish the distribution of these residues across a defined area, ascertain their trend over a specific period and use the results to assess environmental compliance and safety. In the present review the availability of information on pesticide residues in various Canadian environmental components was sought. With the possible exception of localized pesticide contamination of some private water supply wells, ground and surface water, most analyses revealed concentrations below guideline limits. Only a few cases were reported of mishandling, misuse and poisoning from pesticides. Continuing surveillance programmes and in-depth and well-organized monitoring studies, with special focus on areas that are vulnerable to contamination, by both provincial and federal governments, are largely responsible for the encouraging results. This experience in the control of pesticide use and monitoring of residues in the environment should be of particular interest in developing countries.Dr A.Y. Sangodoyin is a senior lecturer in the Department of Agricultural Engineering at the University of Ibadan. He was recently involved in a study visit to the University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2G7, where his co-author Dr D.W. Smith is a member of staff in the Department of Civil-Engineering.     

Litter decomposition rate and nutrient release from different litter forms in a Himalayan alpine ecosystem

Observations on above ground litter decomposition and nutrient release in alpine ecosystem of the Himalaya were carried out. Monthly variation was observed for above ground litter crop and it was higher in the protected sites (PR) when compared with unprotected sites (UNPR). Turnover rate (TR) and time (TT) was also higher in PR sites and it corresponded to maximum net accumulation of standing dead and litter biomass. This resulted into low litter disappearance and therefore, low nutrient fluxes as well. Comparatively, potassium content was a maximum followed by N and OC in above ground crop of litter with significant variation among the sites (P < 0.001 and 0.005, respectively). It was observed that only 9–12% litter of various categories was decomposed annually at the rate of 0.1–0.13%. Overall, decomposition process was a maximum during active growth season and only 13.2–16.2% of total litter was decomposed during the winter months (December–March). Release of OC and NPK to soil organic matter through the decomposition of various litter types was also observed and the pattern of release was similar to that of disappearance channel. All these parameters are reported and possible reasons are described in the present paper.     

Differences in Perceptions of Communication,Tourism Benefits,and Management Issues in a Protected Area of Rural Kenya

With record-breaking tourist visits in Kenya in 2005–2006, communities near the country’s renowned protected areas must undertake or revisit planning efforts to conserve and enhance the region’s natural, social, and economic resources. This article examines the differences between two stakeholder groups in the Samburu region of central Kenya: (1) protected area leadership and staff; and (2) members of the communities adjacent to the protected areas. Based on the results and analysis of 30 in-depth interviews, the authors identify differences between protected area staff and their community members regarding perceptions about communication between the two groups, and the economic benefits of tourism. The different stakeholders agreed, however, about challenges related to equitable distribution of tourism-based employment and revenue. The results indicate a need to reach consensus about what constitutes sufficient communication between national reserves and their community, and to what extent tourism-related revenue and employment should be distributed within the region. A discussion of the potential role of indicators and standards to make such decisions is presented.     

Camel culling and carbon emissions in rangelands in central Australia

Culling feral camels will impact on the carbon emissions from them. Culling of feral camels stops their long-term continuous methane emission, but emits carbon from their carcasses in the short term. Through on-site monitoring of the decomposition process of camels that have been shot dead, this paper models the pattern of carbon emissions during the decomposition of these camels in Central Australia, and analyses the contribution of the camel culling programme to carbon emission mitigation on the rangelands. A ‘carbon royalty’ payment mechanism is also suggested to encourage local participation in carbon markets through an involvement in natural resource management.     

Investigating efficiency of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Lampito mauritii</Emphasis> (Kinberg) and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Perionyx ceylanensis</Emphasis> Michaelsen for vermicomposting of different types of organic substrates

The vermicomposting ability of Lampito mauritii (Kinberg) and Perionyx ceylanensis Michaelsen was evaluated by using three different types of organic substrates such as leaf litter of Polyalthia longifolia, Pennisetum typhoides cobs (pearl millet) and a weed, Rottboellia exaltata (whole plant except the roots) in combination with cowdung (1:1). Vermicomposting studies (120 days) conducted to optimize the number of worms required for efficient conversion based on the reduction of C/N ratio, percentage decomposition of organic substrates, total number and biomass of earthworms recovered from the vermibed substrates clearly showed that vermibeds with 4 kg of organic materials can hold about 60–80 L. mauritii and about 90–120 P. ceylanensis for efficient decomposition. The percentage decomposition of each organic substrate treated with different numbers of L. mauritii (20, 40, 60, 80 and 100 earthworms) and P. ceylanensis (30, 60, 90, 120 and 150) showed significant difference (P < 0.001) between numbers of worms introduced per vermibed but the difference between substrates was not significant within the treatments. Vermicomposting resulted in significant increase in electrical conductivity (28.54–49.82%), total nitrogen (43.96–90.83%), total phosphorus (27.42–68.10%) and total potassium (27.42–113.18%), whereas decrease in organic carbon (35.05–49.74%), C/N ratio (55.48–73.18%) and C/P ratio (50.46–66.90%) in different vermibeds introduced with L. mauritii and P. ceylanensis. Both the earthworm species can be used for vermicomposting different organic substrates; however, duration of vermicomposting with P. ceylanensis is not as much of L. mauritii. The use of L. mauritii for vermicomposting of other substrates has been well established by other workers also but standardization of P. ceylanensis, a locally available species, for vermicomposting of different organic substrates is a new finding and the species could be useful for vermiconversion of organic substrates under local conditions.     

Role of physiographic factors in distribution of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Abies pindrow</Emphasis> (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Silver Fir</Emphasis>) along an altitudinal gradient in Himalayan temperate forests

We have made an attempt to understand the significance of physiographic factors viz., altitude, aspect, slope and soil characteristics in determining the structure, composition, growth behavior and distribution of Himalayan Silver Fir (Abies pindrow Spach.) through a comparative analysis of two temperate forests. The occurrence of highest density (370 and 225 ind/ha), importance value index (213.10 and 190.60) and total basal cover (TBC; 95.72 and 51.15 m²/ha) values along with the availability of higher organic carbon (6.53 and 4.47%), nitrogen (N; 0.73 and 0.44%) and potassium (K; 621 and 319 ppm) contents in the soils just beneath the hilltops (2,650–2,800 and 2,550–2,650 m asl), on steeper slopes (45°–50° and 42°–45°) and North-East aspects have revealed better growth of A. pindrow on both the sites. Stem density positively correlated with TBC (0.771), Shannon–Wiener diversity index (H′; 0.879), OC (0.601), N (0.758) and K (0.752), whereas TBC has shown significant positive relationship with H′ (0.894), K (0.793) and N (0.716). Similarly, H′ has also shown significant positive correlation with slope (0.721), K (0.855) and N (0.791). Interestingly, positive correlation of altitude with stem density (0.557) and of slope with TBC (0.608) was noticed in the distribution of A. pindrow individuals.     

Development of a sprayable slow-release formulation for the sex pheromone of the Mediterranean Corn Borer, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Sesamia nonagroides</Emphasis>

In the FAIR project “Pheromaize”, CT96-1302, the main objective is to provide European growers with a reliable, cost effective and environmentally friendly technology based on pest mating disruption. The project is mainly focused on Mediterranean Corn Borer (MCB), Sesamia nonagroides, the key pest of maize grown under Mediterranean conditions. TNO has developed a sprayable formulation consisting of a biodegradable matrix in which␣the pheromone is dissolved, together with a UV––stabilizer, an antioxidant, a surfactant and a sticker material. During outdoor exposure experiments release of pheromone was found to be high enough for more than 30 days. This formulation has been tested in large scale field experiments by helicopter spraying on 5 ha maize by field partners in Spain, Greece and France.     

Electrochemical control of bacterial cell accumulation on submerged glass surfaces

 Accumulation of bacterial cells on a transparent electrode was controlled by applying an alternating potential. Live and dead cells on a transparent electrode can be distinguished as blue and red cells, by staining with two fluorescent dyes, propidium iodide (PI) and 4′, 6-diamidino-   2-phenylindole dihydrochloride (DAPI) and propidium iodide (PI), respectively. Cells of the gram-negative marine bacterium, Vibrio alginolyticus attached to an indium/tin oxide (ITO) electrode were killed by applying a potential of 1.1 V versus saturated calomel electrode in seawater. By applying –0.4 V, 73% of the cells on the ITO electrode were desorbed in 10 min. Changes in pH and generation of chlorine were not observed after applying potentials in the range of –0.4∼1.2 V. After 21 h of immersion in V. alginolyticus cell suspension with the application of an alternating potential of 1.1 and –0.4 V, cells on the electrode were completely killed and the cell number decreased to 20% of that of no potential. Elution of indium and tin was not observed after 10 days application of alternating potential. Received: 11 August 1998 / Accepted: 30 September 1998     

EFFECTS OF INSECTICIDE USE IN A PINE SEED ORCHARD ON PESTICIDE LEVELS IN FISH1

ABSTRACT: A hydroelectric lake on the Oconee River in central Georgia was sampled on a quarterly basis for four years to determine the impact of three insecticides on the pesticide loading of fish. The insecticides carbofuran (2,3,-dihydro-2,2-dimethyl-7-benzofuranyl methyl-carbamate), fenvalerate [cyano(3-phenoxyphenyl)methyl 4-chloro alpha (1-methylethyl)benzeneacetate], and azinphosmethyl [0,0-Dimethyl S-(4-oxo-1,2,3-benzotriazin-3-(4H)-ylmethyl phosphorodithioate] were used to control cone and seed insects on a pine seed orchard that is adjacent to Lake Oconee. Fish populations in areas of the lake that receive runoff from treated and untreated portions of the seed orchard were sampled using gill nets. Water and fish samples were collected monthly in 1981–1983 and quarterly in 1984. Species collected included carp (Cyprinus carpio), sucker (Catostomus spp., Erimyzon spp., Moxostoma spp., Minytrema spp.), bass (Micropterus spp.), channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), spotted gar (Lepisosteus spp.), and bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus). Few carbofuran residues (< 7 percent of fish samples contained detectable residues) and no azinphosmethyl or fenvalerate residues were detected despite measured inputs into the lake after insecticide application. Persistent agricultural insecticides including dieldrin, lindane, DDT, and toxaphene were detected in 32, 36, 58, and 83 percent of sampled fish, respectively. Screening for 20 other insecticides resulted in no detection of residues at a detection limit of 30–100 μg kg^-1.     

Dynamics of Plains Cottonwood (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Populus deltoides</Emphasis>) Forests and Historical Landscape Change along Unchannelized Segments of the Missouri River,USA

Construction of six large dams and reservoirs on the Missouri River over the last 50–75 years has resulted in major landscape changes and alterations in flow patterns, with implications for riparian forests dominated by plains cottonwood (Populus deltoides). We quantified changes in land cover from 1892–1950s and the 1950s–2006 and the current extent and age structure of cottonwood forests on seven segments (two reservoir and five remnant floodplain) comprising 1127 km (53 %) of the unchannelized upper two-thirds of the Missouri River. Riparian forest area declined by 49 %; grassland 61 %; shrubland 52 %; and sandbar habitat 96 %; while agricultural cropland increased six-fold and river/reservoir surface area doubled from 1892 to 2006. Net rates of erosion and accretion declined between the 1892–1950s and 1950s–2006 periods. Accretion exceeded erosion on remnant floodplain segments, resulting in declines in active channel width, particularly in 1950s–2006. Across all study segments in 2006, most cottonwood stands (67 %) were >50 years old, 22 % were 25–50 years old, and only 10 % were <25 years old. Among stands <50 years old, the higher proportion of 25–50 year old stands represents recruitment that accompanied initial post-dam channel narrowing; while declines in sandbar and shrubland area and the low proportion of stands <25 years old suggest declines in geomorphic dynamism and limited recruitment under recent river management. Future conservation and restoration efforts should focus both on limiting further loss of remnant cottonwood stands and developing approaches to restore river dynamics and cottonwood recruitment processes.     

A proposal to conserve black-footed ferrets and the prairie dog ecosystem

Prairie dogs (Cynomys spp.) have been poisoned throughout this century because of grazing competition with livestock. Recent evidence showed these early claims were exaggerated, but animal control was already entrenched in government policy. As a result, ongoing government subsidized poisoning has reduced prairie dogs to about 2% of their former distribution. The reduction of prairie dogs diminished species diversity in the arid grasslands of North America, including the potential extinction of the black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes). Cost-benefit analysis revealed that poisoning costs more than any grazing benefits accrued. This analysis did not consider the long-term costs of reversing ecosystem degradation, the intangible value of biological diversity as a public benefit, or the depletion of biotic resources as a loss of actual or potential wealth. The government presently finances the poisoning policy and the preservation of endangered species like the black-footed ferret, two apparently conflicting programs. We, therefore, propose an integrated management plan that considers both interests. We propose that federal monies allocated to the poisoning program be converted into a rebate for ranchers who manage livestock while preserving the prairie dog community. This would redirect funds and personnel already allocated to prairie dog eradication to an incentive for ranchers who manage for livestock and wildlife. Livestock interests and grassland biotic diversity would both benefit.     

Eco-Environmental Evolution, Control, and Adjustment for Aibi Lake Catchment

Aibi Lake in north Xinjiang is a typical lake of the arid area, but with a peculiar wetland–arid area ecosystem. Due to the climate becoming drier and the disturbance of human activities, the eco-environment of Aibi Lake catchment has degraded. It was found in our study that there were spatial–temporal changes of vegetation cover, plant species, and soil physical and chemical properties in the catchment. In the upper section of alluvial–fluvial plains, the desertified steppe of Stipa and Artemisia spp. is developed with vegetation cover of some 50%. Haloxylon ammodendron desert occupies the lower section with vegetation cover of some 60%. In these regions with an intensive human disturbance, vegetation has degraded into herb vegetation of annual plant complexes. On the margins of the alluvial–fluvial fans, the lakeshore, and the surrounding regions where the river mouths join the lake, different azonal vegetation—Phragmites communis marsh, Phragmites communis meadow, and Tamarix shrubs—have developed with a vegetation cover of some 80%. On heavier, salinized land, succulent halophyte desert vegetation dominated by Halocnemum strobilaceum has formed with a fractional canopy cover of 10–15%. Haloxylon persicum, Aristida pennata, and other species with a vegetation cover of 30–50% grow in the sand desert zone on the periphery in the lake. In contrast with the 1950s, the vegetation cover around the lakebed and at the river deltas has slightly increased; however, the vegetation cover around the periphery of the lake has decreased and the plant species have still degraded. The surface soils on the windward area and the dried lakebed that have lost vegetation protection have become coarser, whereas the land on the leeward side of the lake has accumulated fine particles. In contrast with the 1980s, soil organic matter has declined markedly. The analyses of climatic data show that the number of days of drifting dust in Jinghe County and Bole City increased in the last 20 years. In the investigation, we found that intensively developed land, the bare lakebed, and abandoned cultivated land provided a great deal of material for drifting dust. In conclusion, we consider the eco-environmental degradation resulting from the inappropriate human activities and put forward recommendations for land-use adjustment and dust control.     

Chronic Toxicity of 1080 and its Implications for Conservation Management: A New Zealand Case Study

Sodium monofluoroacetate (1080) is a mammalian pesticide used in different parts of the world for the control of mammalian pest species. In New Zealand it is used extensively and very successfully as a conservation management tool for the control of brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula) – an introduced marsupial that has become a substantial agricultural and conservation management pest. Possums pose a threat to cattle farming in New Zealand as they are a vector for bovine tuberculosis. In protected natural areas, possum browsing is responsible for large scale defoliation of native vegetation. As with many other pesticides, there has been some degree of popular concern about the use of this toxin and its safety, with particular reference to non-target effects. These concerns have been associated with potential non-target effects on human health, and the health of animals of recreational value (e.g., hunting dogs and game animals). This has led to the development of a strong “anti-1080” lobby in New Zealand. In contrast, this study encompasses a science-based risk analysis focusing on the potential risks to non-target native wildlife with a particular focus on chronic toxicity. It finds that there is evidence that 1080 may have endocrine disrupting capabilities (with potential relevance for non-target wildlife) but that this still needs more detailed investigation. This can be clarified by further targeted research. Further research is also needed to test the degradation rates of 1080 and its breakdown products at ecologically-relevant temperatures (i.e., winter stream temperatures – below 11 °C). Such research may demonstrate that some adjustment to 1080 risk management is warranted in New Zealand, or it may help to put to rest the current controversy over the use of this cost effective conservation management tool.     

Tijuana Childhood Lead Risk Assessment Revisited: Validating a GIS Model with Environmental Data

The objective of this research was to determine the spatial distributions of childhood lead poisoning and soil lead contamination in urban Tijuana. The Bocco–Sanchez model of point-source emissions was evaluated in terms of validity and reliability. We compared the model's predicted vulnerable populations with observed cases of childhood lead poisoning in Tijuana, identified fixed point sources in the field, and analyzed 76 soil samples from 14 sites. The soil lead results were compared to the blood lead analyses performed on Tijuana children whose blood lead levels were ≥10 μg/dL, who reported that they did not use lead-glazed ceramics for cooking or storing food (n = 63). Using GIS, predicted vs observed risk areas were assessed by examining spatial patterns, including the distribution of cases per designated risk area. Chi-square analysis of expected vs observed values did not differ significantly at the p = 0.02 level, showing that the model was strikingly accurate in predicting the distribution of subjects with elevated blood lead. Results reveal that while point sources are significant, other sources of lead exposure are also important. The relative public health risk from exposure to lead in an urban setting may be assessed by distinguishing among sources of exposure and associating concentrations to blood lead levels. The results represent an iterative approach in environmental health research by linking environmental and human biomarker lead concentrations and using these results to validate an environmental model of risk to lead exposure.     

Compliance with Regulations by “Swim-with-Dolphins” Operations in Port Phillip Bay,Victoria, Australia

Managing the activities of commercial wildlife viewing tends to involve either restricting the number of industry participants and/or regulating the activities or industry participants. We report on operator compliance with regulations regarding humans swimming with free-ranging bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops sp.) in Port Phillip Bay, Victoria, Australia. A total of 128 commercial dolphin-swim trips was studied between September 1998 and April 2000. Four permit conditions were investigated: approach type, swim time, time in proximity of dolphins, and presence of “fetal fold” calves. Results demonstrate noncompliance by operators to all of the four permit conditions studied. Compliance with temporal conditions was poorer than with other conditions. When conducting studies on the extent to which tourism affects cetaceans, investigators should consider whether tourist operations comply with existing regulations or guidelines.     

A Review of the Relative Merits of Conserving,Using, or Draining Papyrus Swamps

Wetlands are a vital resource, particularly in Africa where livelihoods are closely linked to natural capital. In recent years, extensive drainage has occurred to make way for agriculture. To gain insight into whether drainage is justified, we review the value of African wetlands dominated by Cyperus papyrus in relation to use, conservation and conversion. Evidence suggests that the value derived from low-intensity, multifunctional wetland use far exceeds the value derived from swamp reclamation and generally exceeds that of conservation. At a local level, the main driver of wetland misuse appear to be a breakdown in collaborative management regimes and the main constraint on wetland use, the value of labor and selling-times. Local drivers are linked to regional factors such as the lack of coordinated wetland policies and difficulties in ensuring that legislation is absorbed by all sectors of society. We highlight opportunities for ensuring more effective collaborative management and legislation communication, which capitalize on existing governance structures. In contrast to predictions by Hardin’s Tragedy of the Commons model, we argue that effective wetland management is best achieved by preventing privatization and promoting common property management regimes. We also argue that poverty and income inequity are more important drivers of unsustainable resource use than environmental managers commonly acknowledge.     

Effects of Sea-Level Rise and Anthropogenic Development on Priority Bird Species Habitats in Coastal Georgia, USA

We modeled changes in area of five habitats, tidal-freshwater forest, salt marsh, maritime shrub-scrub (shrub), maritime broadleaf forest (oak) and maritime narrowleaf (pine) forest, in coastal Georgia, USA, to evaluate how simultaneous habitat loss due to predicted changes in sea level rise (SLR) and urban development will affect priority bird species of the south Atlantic coastal plain by 2100. Development rates, based on regional growth plans, were modeled at 1% and 2.5% annual urban growth, while SLR rates, based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s A1B mean and maximum scenarios, were modeled at 52 cm and 82 cm, respectively. SLR most greatly affected the shrub habitat with predicted losses of 35–43%. Salt marsh and tidal forest also were predicted to lose considerable area to SLR (20–45 and 23–35%, respectively), whereas oak and pine forests had lesser impact from SLR, 18–22% and 11–15%, respectively. Urban development resulted in losses of considerable pine (48–49%) and oak (53–55%) habitat with lesser loss of shrub habitat (21–24%). Under maximum SLR and urban growth, shrub habitat may lose up to 59–64% compared to as much as 62–65% pine forest and 74–75% oak forest. Conservation efforts should focus on protection of shrub habitat because of its small area relative to other terrestrial habitats and use by Painted Buntings (Passerina ciris), a Partners In Flight (PIF) extremely high priority species. Tidal forests also deserve protection because they are a likely refuge for forest species, such as Northern Parula and Acadian Flycatcher, with the decline of oak and pine forests due to urban development.     

Effect of grazing on plant attributes and hydrological properties in the sloping lands of the East African highlands

Extending livestock grazing to the steep slopes has led to unstable grazing systems in the East African Highlands, and new solutions and approaches are needed to ameliorate the current situation. This work was aimed at studying the effect of livestock grazing on plant attributes and hydrological properties. The study was conducted from 1996 to 2000 at the International Livestock Research Institute at Debre Ziet Research Station. Two sites were selected: one at 0–4% slope, and the other at 4–8% slope. The treatments were: (1) no grazing (control); (2) light grazing, 0.6 animal unit months per hectare (aum/ha); (3) moderate grazing, 1.8 aum/ha; (4) heavy grazing, 3.0 aum/ha; (5) very heavy grazing, 4.2 aum/ha; (6) initially plowed and continuously very heavily grazed, 4.2 aum/ha. The result showed that species richness, infiltration rate, bare ground, and soil loss significantly varied with grazing pressure. Species richness was higher in grazed plots compared to nongrazed plots. Biomass yield improved on heavily grazed plots as cow dung accumulated over years. Cynodon dactylon plant species persisted with livestock grazing pressure in both sites. Infiltration rate improved and soil erosion declined in all treatments after the first year.     

Heavy metal distribution in crab (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Callinectes amnicola</Emphasis>) living on the shores of Ojo Rivers,Lagos, Nigeria

Crab samples, both male and female specie, were purchased from fishermen at the Ojo Rivers, Lagos, Nigeria. The samples separated into abdomen, muscle tissue, and thorax were oven dried at 80°C for 3 days. The dried samples were then pulverized in a clean acid-washed mortar and pestle. Approximately 1.00 g each of the pulverized samples was weighed and Zn, Cr, Pb, and Cd were determined in the solution of the aqua regia digested samples by means of AAS (Buck Scientific 210 GVP model). The results obtained showed Zn metal to be consistently higher in all the female parts compared to the male with values of 12.92 ± 3.65 μg/g to 16.03 ± 1.08 μg/g and 9.33 ± 1.77 μg/g to 15.75 ± 1.02 μg/g, respectively. Mean values of 0.39 ± 0.09 μg/g and 0.22 ± 0.02 μg/g cadmium were found in the abdomen and tissue of the male crab as against 0.35 ± 0.07 μg/g and 0.17 ± 0.07 μg/g in the female crab. The tissues of both species have comparable value of chromium. Lead was below the detection limit of 0.05 μg/g in the tissues of male crab but the female tissue contained 0.83 ± 0.13 μg/g and in other parts identified, lead was consistently higher than the 2.00 μg/g permissible level of WHO in foods. A simple pair t-test did not demonstrate any significant difference in the distribution of metals between the male and female crabs. The coefficient of variation (CV) calculated for each metal with respect to the studied parts showed Pb to be widely distributed (56.23–89.54%) while Cr did not vary widely (4.17–8.20%).     

Functional wildlife parks: The views of Kenyan children who live with them

This study reports on Kenyan school children's ideas about wildlife parks in their country. A comparison is made between the responses of school children in primary school, before they receive any science education, and those of secondary school pupils at the end of the secondary cycle. The findings show little difference between the two groups of students in terms of their ideas about wildlife parks. This has serious implications for science and environmental education in Kenya. Parks are understood by these pupils in terms of real life issues, as derived from social consequences. The children's ideas are all based on the role that parks play in society, but the function of parks to support biodiversity conservation does not seem to be important to the students. While it is satisfying to note that the school children have a good understanding of parks in their social context, it is essential to address fully the scientific and ecological role of parks in order that biodiversity becomes more valued in our society.