The effects of managerial and employee attributions for corporate social responsibility initiatives

Although corporate social responsibility (CSR) can affect employees, we know little about how it affects them. Employees' interpretation of CSR is important because of the paradoxical nature of CSR. When firms operate in ways that seem counter to their nature (i.e., pursuit of social good rather than profit), the causal attributions of affected employees are crucial to understanding their work‐related behavior, as is the role of contextual factors such as leadership processes in shaping these attributions. Drawing from attribution and social learning theories, we develop a multilevel social influence theory of how CSR affects employees. We integrate managers as second observers in the baseline actor (i.e., firm)—observer (i.e., employee) dyad, whereas most attribution theory research has focused on single actor–observer dyads. Multisource field data collected from 427 employees and 45 managers were analyzed using hierarchical linear modeling. Managers' genuine (self‐serving) CSR attributions are positively related to employees' genuine (self‐serving) CSR attributions; and the strength of the relationship between managers' and employees' genuine CSR attributions depends on managers' organizational tenure. Employees' genuine CSR attributions also are positively related to employee advocacy, whereas—interestingly—employees' self‐serving CSR attributions do not appear to harm employee advocacy. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Relation between senior managers’ safety leadership and safety behavior in the Chinese petrochemical industry

Senior managers in organizations are authorized and obliged to maintain organizational safety. However, to date, little research has considered the relation of senior managers' safety leadership to safety behavior. This study addresses this gap by using path analysis to confirm the validity of a hypothetical model that relates six dimensions of senior managers' safety leadership to two safety behaviors through the safety climate in the petrochemical industry. A questionnaire survey was sent randomly to workers (other than senior managers) in two petrochemical companies in China, and data from 155 usable responses were compiled for the path analysis. Results indicate that in the petrochemical industry, senior managers' safety leadership has a positive impact on safety behavior, and the safety climate plays an intermediary role between them. From the perspective of the dimensions of senior managers' safety leadership and safety behavior, safety concern has the greatest positive effect on safety compliance. Moreover, safety vision has the greatest positive impact on safety participation, whereas safety inspiration and safety awards and punishment have negative effects on safety compliance. Personal character does not directly influence any dimension of safety behavior but indirectly does so by influencing the safety climate. On the basis of these results, measures of improving senior managers' safety leadership in the petrochemical industry are presented to help improve the overall safety performance of the industry. A new view is provided for the petrochemical industry in China to suggest that senior managers’ safety leadership can be treated earnestly.     

Employee judgments of and behaviors toward corporate social responsibility: A multi‐study investigation of direct,cascading, and moderating effects

Do employee judgments of their organization's corporate social responsibility (CSR) programs relate to CSR‐specific performance and in‐role job performance? Can middle managers influence the formation of such judgments and what factors might moderate such cascading influences? To answer these yet unaddressed questions, we conduct three studies. Study 1 takes an organizational justice perspective and tests our baseline model. Results show that employees' CSR judgments trigger their affective commitment and performance on extra‐role CSR‐specific behaviors; however, extra‐role CSR‐specific performance is unrelated to in‐role job performance. Study 2 replicates Study 1's findings while, in addition, applies a social information processing approach and offers novel insights by demonstrating the cascading effects of managers' CSR judgments on employee CSR judgments. Investments made in CSR programs in order to improve employee judgments and behaviors may be unsuccessful if employees' CSR judgments are based on social information that remains unchanged. In addition to replicating the findings from studies 1 and 2, study 3 draws from middle management involvement and leadership theories to show that leadership styles and managers' involvement in implementing deliberate strategy can strengthen or weaken these cascading effects. This highlights the important role of middle managers as “linking pins” in the CSR strategy implementation process. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Charismatic leadership viewed from above: the impact of proactive personality

We tested hypotheses regarding the relationship between proactive personality and perceptions of charismatic leadership. A sample of 156 managers completed measures of proactive personality along with measures of the five‐factor model of personality and other individual differences. The managers' immediate supervisors rated their charismatic leadership and in‐role behavior. Results suggest that self‐reported proactive personality is positively associated with supervisors' independent ratings of charismatic leadership. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that proactive personality accounts for variance in a manager's charismatic leadership above and beyond that accounted for by an array of control variables (the Big Five personality factors, in‐role behavior, and social desirability). Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

How do transformational leaders foster positive employee outcomes? A self‐determination‐based analysis of employees' needs as mediating links

Although followers' needs are a central aspect of transformational leadership theory, little is known about their role as mediating mechanisms for this leadership style. The present research thus seeks to integrate and extend theorizing on transformational leadership and self‐determination. In particular, we propose that the satisfaction of followers' basic needs (autonomy, competence, and relatedness) mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and employee outcomes (job satisfaction, self‐efficacy, and commitment to the leader). We tested this model in two studies involving employees from a broad spectrum of organizations in Germany (N = 410) and in Switzerland (N = 442). Results revealed largely consistent patterns across both studies. The need for competence fulfillment solely mediated the link between transformational leadership and occupational self‐efficacy; the need for relatedness fulfillment solely mediated the link between transformational leadership and commitment to the leader. The mediating pattern for the link between transformational leadership and job satisfaction varied slightly across studies. In Study 1, only the need for autonomy fulfillment was a significant mediator, whereas in Study 2, all three needs mediated this relationship. Taken together, our study integrates theorizing on transformational leadership and self‐determination by corroborating that need fulfillment indeed is a central mechanism behind transformational leadership. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The moderating effects of political skill on the perceived politics–outcome relationships

Previous research has established that perceptions of organizational politics are associated with negative organizational outcomes. However, this may not hold true for all individuals. We offer subordinate and supervisor political skill, the ability to understand interactions at work and to use that understanding to effectively influence others, as possible moderators. Specifically, this study investigates the impact of both employees' self‐rated political skill and their managers' political skill on job satisfaction, job performance, and manager‐rated commitment. We examined these relationships in an organizational sample of 106 matched dyadic pairs and found mixed support for the joint moderating effect of self and manager political skill on the politics perceptions‐outcome relationships. Strengths, limitations, and directions for future research are discussed. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The impact of multiple source feedback on management development: findings from a longitudinal study

Despite the rapid uptake of multi‐source multi‐rater (MSMR) feedback systems by UK organizations, comparatively little research exists describing the actual impact on participant managers, in terms of changes in management competence. Ratings of 104 target managers (by self assessments, bosses‐, first‐ and second‐level subordinates) were investigated within the context of a developmental feedback programme in operation within an organization. The study compared ratings over two administrations (with two years between administrations) to determine: (1) changes in co‐workers' perceptions of their target manager's competence, (2) changes in target managers' development needs over time, (3) factors influencing a target manager's revised self‐assessment and co‐workers ratings, (4) changes in congruence between self and co‐workers ratings and (5) the relationship of feedback to the organization's formal performance appraisal process. Significant increases in managers' competence were perceived by the managers' themselves and by their subordinates, development needs were seen to reduce and self and co‐workers ratings were largely seen to become more congruent. However, polynomial regression analyses revealed co‐workers feedback at Time One was not predictive of targets' self‐assessments at Time Two. The implications of these findings with regard to the utility of MSMR feedback as a tool for management development are discussed. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A multi‐rater assessment of organizational commitment: are self‐report measures biased?

Most investigations of organizational commitment have been conducted using self‐report measures, however, the veracity of self‐reports is often questioned. In a sample of 79 public‐sector administrative staff, we assessed two types of organizational commitment (affective and continuance) from the perspective of three different sources of raters (self, peer, and supervisor) to test three explanations of the factors influencing self‐report measures (observational opportunities, simple defensiveness, and moderated defensiveness). The pattern of correlations among the measures, analysed using the composite direct product multitrait–multirater approach, suggested that self‐report commitment measures are affected mainly by observations or experiences of the self‐reporter rather than by systematic bias related to defensive responding. This increases our confidence that scores from self‐report measures of affective and continuance commitment are veridical. Further, self‐ and peer‐based measures of commitment were largely redundant in the prediction of a job‐performance criterion whereas supervisory measures added unique predictive variance. Implications are discussed. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Positive affectivity neutralizes transformational leadership's influence on creative performance and organizational citizenship behaviors

This study uses an interactionist approach to examine the moderating effect of follower trait positive affectivity (trait PA) on the relation between transformational leadership and both follower creative performance and organizational citizenship behaviors (OCB). On the basis of responses from 212 employees and their direct supervisors from the research and development department of a company in Mainland China, results support the hypothesized moderation effect. Specifically, the positive influence of transformational leadership on creative performance was significantly reduced for followers who were higher on trait PA (ΔR² = .02, p < .05). The same pattern, in which followers' trait PA appeared to substitute for the influence of transformational leadership, generalized to the outcome of follower OCB as well (ΔR² = .04, p < .01). We discussed theoretical and practical implications of these findings. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Transition to self‐directed work teams: implications of transition time and self‐monitoring for managers' use of influence tactics

In the face of heightened competitive pressures, elevated quality expectations, and calls for worker empowerment, more and more organizations have turned to self‐directed work teams (SDWTs). A review of the literature devoted to SDWTs suggests that managers often struggle with the transition to SDWTs because of the required shift in control to SDWT members. To promote the development of work teams, managers must modify their use of influence tactics in direct response to the control shift. In this study, we explore changes in managers' usage of influence tactics during the transition to SDWTs within a large aluminum manufacturing plant. Analyses of longitudinal data show that despite the new team environment, managers' use of influence tactics was focused at the individual level. We also found that transition time accounts for variance in managers' choices of influence tactics. Finally, an exploratory analysis suggests that high as opposed to low self‐monitoring managers may be more prone to increase their usage of soft influence tactics and decrease their usage of hard influence tactics over the course of the transition; the influence behavior of low self‐monitoring managers remained unchanged. Implications for future research are discussed. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The relationship between managerial motivation,leadership, nurse outcomes and patient satisfaction

This ex‐post facto/correlational study examines the relationships among the following variables: nurse manager motivation for power, achievement and affiliation (N=19), managerial leadership behaviors, staff nurse outcomes of job satisfaction, productivity and organizational commitment (N=221) and patient satisfaction (N=299). Results show that managerial motivation for power is negatively correlated with manager use of leadership behaviors and staff nurse job satisfaction but positively correlated with patient satisfaction. Managerial motivation for achievement is positively correlated with use of leadership behaviors as well as nurse job satisfaction, productivity and organizational commitment, and generally to patient satisfaction. Managerial motivation for affiliation reveals few significant positive or negative relationships with other variables. The researcher concludes that both power and achievement motivation of the manager influence staff and patient outcomes in health care in the 1990s. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

An integrative model of managerial perceptions of employee commitment: antecedents and influences on employee treatment

An integrative model of antecedents and outcomes of managerial perceptions of employee organizational commitment was developed and tested with 490 employees of a publicly owned U.S. manufacturing firm. The results are consistent with predictions showing that self‐reported affective commitment and supervisor‐focused impression management predicted managerial perceptions of affective commitment, whereas age, tenure, education, training and development, and self‐focused impression management were related to managerial perceptions of continuance commitment. Furthermore, manager‐rated affective and continuance commitment were differentially related to supervisory treatment of the employee (i.e. receiving contingent rewards and non‐contingent punishment). The results of this study show how managers develop perceptions of affective and continuance commitment, and through their associated treatment of employees, has important implications for the ways managers may serve to enhance or detract from employee contributions to the organization. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Transformational leadership and organizational commitment: mediating role of psychological empowerment and moderating role of structural distance

Using a sample of 520 staff nurses employed by a large public hospital in Singapore, we examined whether psychological empowerment mediated the effects of transformational leadership on followers' organizational commitment. We also examined how structural distance (direct and indirect leadership) between leaders and followers moderated the relationship between transformational leadership and organizational commitment. Results from HLM analyses showed that psychological empowerment mediated the relationship between transformational leadership and organizational commitment. Similarly, structural distance between the leader and follower moderated the relationship between transformational leadership and organizational commitment. Implications for research and practice of our findings are discussed. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The effects of proximal and distal goals on performance on a moderately complex task

The effect of a proximal plus a distal goal was investigated relative to setting only a distal goal or urging participants to do their best. Young adults (N=39) were paid on a piece rate basis to make toys. An analysis of variance revealed that the amount of money earned by the participants who were urged to ‘do your best’ was significantly greater than the amount of money earned by the participants who were assigned a distal goal. However, the amount of money earned by the participants who were assigned proximal goals, in addition to a distal goal, was significantly greater than the amount of money earned by the participants in the ‘do your best’ condition. The correlation between perceived self‐efficacy and the amount of money earned was 0.45 (p<0.01). Perceived self‐efficacy significantly increased only for those participants in the proximal plus distal goal condition. Proximal goals, through self‐efficacy and performance feedback, appear to have focused attention on task appropriate strategies. The results suggest an informational explanation of proximal goals as opposed to a motivational one through goal commitment. Implications of these findings for mentoring and training are discussed. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The influence of organizational democracy on employees' socio‐moral climate and prosocial behavioral orientations

This study investigates the effects of workers' perceived participation in democratic decision‐making on their prosocial behavioral orientations, democratic values, commitment to the firm, and perceptions of socio‐moral climate. The sample consists of 325 German‐speaking employees from 22 companies in Austria, North Italy, and Southern Germany that vary in their level of organizational democracy (social partnership enterprises, workers' co‐operatives, democratic reform enterprises, and employee‐owned self‐governed firms). The findings suggest that the extent employees participate in democratic forms of organizational decision‐making is positively related to the firm's socio‐moral climate as well as to their own organizational commitment and prosocial and community‐related behavioral orientations. The results also indicate that socio‐moral climate is positively related to employees' organizational commitment. The effect of participation in decision‐making on organizational commitment is partially mediated by socio‐moral climate. Implications for promoting societal and organizational civic virtues among individuals are described. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

An experimental study of the interaction effects of incentive compensation,career ambition,and task attention on Chinese managers' strategic risk behaviors

Building on the person–pay interaction model, we developed and tested a model for the influence of managers' career ambition and task attention on their responses to incentive compensation under different conditions of firm performance. We argued that managers with greater career ambition and task attention will be more responsive to incentive compensation, thereby engaging in more strategic risk behaviors, such as strategic risk taking and strategic change. Results of our experiment using a managerial decision‐making game with a sample of Chinese managers partially supported this contingency perspective. Under the condition of performance decline, managers' career ambition only accentuated the positive relationship between incentive compensation and strategic change. By contrast, task attention strengthened the positive relationships between incentive compensation and both strategic risk taking and strategic change. However, under the condition of performance growth, neither managers' career ambition nor their task attention influenced their responses to incentive compensation. We discuss the implications for how organizational leaders can use incentive compensation to influence the strategic risk behaviors of managers. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Managers' upward influence tactic strategies: the role of manager personality and supervisor leadership style

Why do managers employ certain tactics when they try to influence others? This study proposes and tests theoretical linkages between the five‐factor model of personality and managers' upward influence tactic strategies. Longitudinal data from 189 managers at 140 different organizations confirmed that managers scoring high on extraversion were more likely to use inspirational appeal and ingratiation; those scoring high on openness were less likely to use coalitions; those scoring high on emotional stability were more likely to use rational persuasion and less likely to use inspirational appeal; those scoring high on agreeableness were less likely to use legitimization or pressure; and those scoring high on conscientiousness were more likely to use rational appeal. Results also confirmed that managers' upward influence tactic strategies depended on the leadership style of their target (their supervisor). Managers were more likely to use consultation and inspirational appeal tactics when their supervisor was a transformational leader, but were more likely to use exchange, coalition, legitimization, and pressure tactics when their supervisor displayed a laissez‐faire leadership style. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Site managers and safety leadership in the offshore oil and gas industry

Management commitment to safety is recognised as a fundamental component of an organisation's safety culture (Reason, 1997. Managing the Risks of Organisational Accidents. Ashgate, Aldershot, UK). However, the role and experiences of site managers in relation to safety have rarely been examined. A survey questionnaire was conducted of 200 Offshore Installation Managers (OIMs) from 157 offshore oil and gas installations belonging to 36 organisations operating on the United Kingdom Continental Shelf. The questionnaire gathered data relating to OIMs' level of experience and style of leadership as well as their knowledge and experience of safety and leadership within the industry. The aims of the study are twofold. The first aim is to investigate the relationship between managers' level of experience and style of leadership with their safety attitudes and behaviour. The second aim is to investigate managers' perceptions of best practice in safety leadership and their beliefs about the key outstanding safety issues. Findings suggest that experience is not the dominant factor in determining leadership style or attitudes to safety, however, the less experienced OIMs and those with more directive styles of leadership were found to overestimate their ability to influence and motivate the workforce. It seems that although managers are aware of best practice in safety leadership, they do not always act in ways consistent with this. They report having considerable difficulty in motivating and controlling some safety crucial aspects of workforce behaviour such as getting workers to accept ownership of safety and getting workers to report near misses. In terms of outstanding safety issues, it appears that improvements still need to be made in a number of areas such as the standardisation of safety culture; the harmonisation of safety practices and procedures across the industry; improved workforce competency and increased workforce involvement in safety activities and decision making.     

Modeling attitudes and perceptions as predictors for changing safety margins during organizational change

This study describes the relations between different dimensions of leadership commitment, safety climate and attitudes toward change, and how these affect employee perceptions of safety during organizational change in a high risk environment. We collected data from a European national air navigation services provider during a volatile 3-year corporatization process that ended in the sudden collapse of a deliberate change implementation project. Surprisingly, despite visible signs of internal and external stress caused by the volatile and disruptive change process, we did not observe any change in the traditional safety metrics of incident and accident reporting during the study. The study is based on a large survey (n = 422) of individual attitudes and perceptions of safety climate, perception of leadership commitment to safety, attitudes to organizational change, and perception of safety. The data support the claim that perception of safety at least, in part, depends on individual perceptions of the leadership’s commitment to safety, and the safety climate in place at a given point in time. The model shows how employee perceptions of the leadership’s commitment to safety and safety climate are related to both attitudes toward change, and to perceived safety.