除草定在土壤中的降解和移动特性研究

除草定是一种新型嘧啶类除草剂,其在环境中的归趋备受关注。采用室内模拟试验方法,研究了除草定在不同土壤中的降解性、吸附性和移动特性。结果表明,除草定在江西红壤、太湖水稻土和东北黑土中的降解半衰期分别为693.1、173.3、138.6 d,该药在土壤中降解较慢,影响其在土壤中降解速率的主要因素为土壤有机质。除草定在江西红壤、太湖水稻土与东北黑土中的吸附较好地符合Freundlich方程,Kd值分别为0.34、1.86和2.94;3种土壤对除草定的吸附过程为自发的物理吸附。薄层层析试验显示,当溶剂展开至11.5 cm处,除草定在江西红壤、太湖水稻土和东北黑土中最远移至8~10 cm处。影响除草定在土壤中吸附性和移动性的主要因素为土壤有机质含量。除草定存在对地下水污染的潜在风险性,使用除草定应该引起足够重视。     

丁噻隆在土壤中的吸附和淋溶特性

分别利用振荡平衡法和土柱淋溶法研究了丁噻隆在不同土壤中的吸附和淋溶特性及其影响因素。结果表明,丁噻隆在5种供试土壤中的吸附特性能较好地用线性模型拟合,吸附能力顺序为:东北黑土>太湖水稻土>江西红壤>南京黄棕壤>陕西潮土,吸附常数Kd为0.19~2.87 mL.g-1,吸附性能较差。丁噻隆在3种典型土壤中的淋溶试验表明其具有较强的淋溶性,淋溶速率为:江西红壤>太湖水稻土>东北黑土。影响丁噻隆吸附和淋溶的主要因素是土壤有机质含量。     

壬基酚在土壤中的吸附和淋溶特性

为探究壬基酚在土壤中的吸附迁移规律,分别采用振荡平衡法和柱淋溶法研究了壬基酚在南京黄棕壤、江西红壤、常熟乌栅土、太湖水稻土、东北黑土5种不同土壤中的吸附特性、移动特性,并通过比较其在不同土壤中的吸附和淋溶来分析壬基酚在土壤中吸附和淋溶性的影响因素。吸附试验表明,壬基酚在南京黄棕壤、江西红壤、常熟乌栅土、太湖水稻土、东北黑土中的吸附性均较符合Freundlich方程,Kd值分别为18.89、26.64、44.15、47.49、69.92;吸附性大小次序为:南京黄棕壤江西红壤常熟乌栅土太湖水稻土东北黑土;以有机碳含量表示的土壤吸附常数KOC在2 534.50~4 860.65之间;影响壬基酚土壤吸附性的主要因素为土壤有机质含量,土壤有机质含量增加,吸附增强;壬基酚在5种土壤中的吸附自由能为-21.02~-19.77 k J·mol~(-1),表明吸附机理主要是物理吸附。土柱试验表明,壬基酚在土壤中具有难淋溶性质,壬基酚在5种供试土壤的1~3 cm深度的淋溶滞留量最大;影响其在土壤中淋溶性的主要因素为土壤有机质含量,与吸附试验相一致。壬基酚在土壤中易吸附难淋溶,移动性弱的特点对地表土壤层具有潜在的污染风险,应该引起足够重视。     

除草剂毒草胺在土壤中的吸附和淋溶特性

为研究毒草胺在土壤中的迁移特性,分别利用振荡平衡法和土柱淋溶法测定了毒草胺在不同土壤中的吸附和淋溶特性,并讨论了其影响因素.结果表明,毒草胺在3种供试土壤上的吸附特性能较好地用Freundlich吸附等温线拟合,吸附常数Kd为0.34—2.96 mg1-.nL.nkg-1,很难被土壤吸附,吸附与土壤有机质含量呈显著正相关.毒草胺在土壤中具有较强的淋溶性,淋溶速率：江西红壤〉太湖水稻土〉东北黑土,淋溶性强弱与毒草胺在土壤中的吸附性以及土壤粒径分布有关.     

青霉素钠在土壤中的吸附和淋溶特性

分别采用振荡平衡法和土柱淋溶法分析了青霉素钠在不同土壤中的吸附和淋溶特性及其影响因素。结果表明,25℃以下,3种供试土壤对青霉素钠的吸附特性能用Freundlic模型进行较好的拟合,江西红壤、太湖水稻土和东北黑土的吸附常数KF分别为30.73、39.26和64.58 m L·g-1。偏最小二乘法(PLS)分析表明土壤黏粒含量和有机质含量是影响土壤吸附青霉素钠的主要因素。供试土壤对青霉素钠的吸附自由能变化值均40 k J·mol-1,该吸附过程主要属于物理吸附,吸附能力由大到小依次为东北黑土、太湖水稻土和江西红壤。土柱淋溶试验结果显示,土壤有机质含量和黏粒含量亦是影响淋溶过程的主要因素,青霉素钠在土壤剖面中的迁移能力较弱,3种土壤淋溶性能由大到小依次为江西红壤、太湖水稻土和东北黑土。     

戊唑醇在环境中的降解迁移和生物富集性研究

戊唑醇属于内吸性三唑类杀菌农药,在国内广泛用于田间病虫防治,故其在环境中的归趋备受关注。采用室内模拟试验方法,研究了戊唑醇在水-沉积物中的降解特性、土壤中的吸附性和在斑马鱼中的生物富集性。结果表明:好氧条件下,戊唑醇在河流与湖泊水-沉积物系统中农药总量的降解半衰期分别为533.2、433.2 d;厌氧条件下,河流与湖泊水-沉积物系统中降解半衰期分别为364.8、1 732.9 d;沉积物系统降解半衰期较长,降解速率主要受水中戊唑醇的降解速率影响。戊唑醇在江西红壤、太湖水稻土、常熟乌杉土、东北黑土中的吸附性符合Freundlich方程,Kd值分别为7.4、11.8、11.2和15;吸附性大小次序为东北黑土太湖水稻土常熟乌杉土江西红壤;以有机碳含量表示的土壤吸附常数KOC在698.9~1 635.5之间;影响戊唑醇土壤吸附性的主要因素为土壤有机质含量和p H。戊唑醇在斑马鱼中的生物富集系数BCF8 d为21.52~25.30,具有中等富集性。戊唑醇在水体环境中具有较强稳定性,不易被土壤吸附,且具有一定的生物富集性,可能会对水体和水体生物造成一定的污染。     

2种甲氧基丙烯酸酯类杀菌剂在土壤中的降解吸附特性及对地下水的影响

采用室内模拟试验,以江西红壤、东北黑土和太湖水稻土为代表性土壤,研究了啶氧菌酯和肟菌酯在土壤中的降解、吸附特性,并利用地下水污染指数(GUS)分析了其对地下水污染的影响。结果表明,杀菌剂的降解速率因含有的官能团不同而差异较大,常温、好氧条件下,啶氧菌酯在江西红壤和东北黑土中为较难降解性,在太湖水稻土中为难降解性,肟菌酯在上述3种土壤中均为易降解性;常温、积水厌气条件下,啶氧菌酯在江西红壤、太湖水稻土和东北黑土中均为中等降解性,肟菌酯在3种土壤中均为易降解性。积水厌气条件有利于啶氧菌酯和肟菌酯的降解,厌氧微生物是影响甲氧基丙烯酸酯类杀菌剂降解的重要因素。啶氧菌酯在江西红壤、东北黑土和太湖水稻土中的吸附均较好地符合Freundlich吸附等温方程,土壤有机碳分配系数(Koc)分别为811、613和926,属较难吸附等级,土壤有机质含量是影响啶氧菌酯在土壤中吸附性能的主要因素。采用高效液相色谱法估算可知,肟菌酯Koc20 000,属易吸附等级。啶氧菌酯在3种土壤中的GUS值介于1.8~2.8,具有一定的淋溶性,对地下水具有一定的潜在污染风险;肟菌酯在3种土壤中的GUS值均1.8,不淋溶,对地下水的潜在污染风险较小。     

苯噻菌酯在土壤中的降解、吸附和迁移特性

采用室内模拟试验方法,研究了苯噻菌酯在东北黑土、江西红壤和南京黄棕壤中的降解、吸附和迁移特性.结果表明,苯噻菌酯在3种不同土壤中的降解顺序为东北黑土南京黄棕壤江西红壤,半衰期分别为32.8、37.9、51.7 d,属于中等降解农药.随着土壤含水量(20%—80%)增加,苯噻菌酯的降解速率加快.苯噻菌酯在灭菌土壤中降解速率明显减慢,渍水条件下降解速率加快,说明土壤中微生物,特别是厌氧微生物是影响苯噻菌酯降解的重要因素.此外,土壤中有机质和氧化物能促进苯噻菌酯的降解.3种土壤对苯噻菌酯的吸附均较好地符合Freundich方程,吸附系数Kd值分别为171.33、102.41和135.89,属于较易吸附农药.苯噻菌酯在土壤中移动性较差,属于难淋溶农药.     

除草剂苯噻草胺在土壤中的吸附

对除草剂苯噻草胺在6种不同土壤中的吸附行为进行了研究。结果表明，土壤对苯噻草胺有较强的吸附性。在试验浓度范围内，苯噻草胺的土壤吸附行为可用线性吸附模型表征。土壤有机质是影响苯噻草胺吸附行为的重要因素，其吸附系数有随土壤有机质含量增高而增大的趋势。通过在线性吸附系数（Kd)和土壤有机质含量（OM％）之间构建的回归方程：Kd=2.6120 OM% 1.0746，可以预测苯噻草胺的Kd值，其预测的可靠性通过蒙特卡洛模拟得以检验。     

噻虫嗪在土壤中的吸附和淋溶特性

采用振荡平衡法、土壤薄层层析法和土柱淋溶法研究了噻虫嗪在砂土、粉砂壤土和砂姜黑土等3种不同理化性质土壤中的吸附和淋溶特性,探讨了农药的吸附与淋溶特性与土壤理化性质的关系以及剂型对农药淋溶特性的影响.结果表明,噻虫嗪在3种土壤中的吸附较好地符合Freundlich方程,Kd值分别为砂土1.25、粉砂壤土2.95、砂姜黑土5.10,其大小顺序与Koc值一致.黏粒含量是影响噻虫嗪在土壤中吸附性的最主要因素,有机质含量为次要因素.土壤薄层层析实验和土柱淋溶实验均表明噻虫嗪在3种土壤中的淋溶速率顺序为砂土粉砂壤土砂姜黑土,且油悬浮剂、水悬浮剂淋溶量较高,水分散粒剂次之,颗粒剂最低.噻虫嗪存在对地下水污染的潜在风险,特别是在黏粒和有机质含量低的环境下使用时,其风险应该引起足够的重视.     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

Rapid,recurring, structured survey versus bioblitz for generating biodiversity data and analysis with a multispecies abundance model

A bioblitz inexpensively and quickly generates biodiversity data, but bioblitzes are often conducted with haphazard, unreplicated sampling. Results tend to be taxonomically, geographically, or temporally biased, lack metadata, and consist of lists of observed taxa that do not enable further analyses or correction for imperfect detection. A rapid, recurring, structured survey (RRSS) uses a structured sampling design and temporal and spatial replication to survey randomly selected sites on a conservation property. We participated in a loosely structured bioblitz and a subsequent RRSS at Big Canoe Creek Nature Preserve in Springville (St. Clair County), Alabama (USA) to compare observed richness derived from the 2 survey approaches. The RRSS data structure enabled us to fit models that accounted for imperfect detection to estimate abundances, occupancy probabilities, and habitat associations. The loosely structured bioblitz data could not be used in such models. We present a new integrated multispecies abundance model that we applied to avian RRSS data. Our model extension enables estimation for the community, employs data augmentation to estimate the number of undetected species, and incorporates covariates. The RRSS generated a more comprehensive and less biased list of observed taxonomic richness than the loosely structured bioblitz (e.g., 73 vs. 45 bird species and 104 vs. 63 insect families from the RRSS vs. loosely structured bioblitz, respectively). Models fit to the RRSS data identified seasonal patterns in avian community composition and allowed for estimation of habitat–occupancy relationships for insect taxa. The RRSS protocol has potential for broad transferability as a standardized, quick, and inexpensive way to inventory biodiversity and estimate ecological parameters while providing an outreach opportunity.     

Compliance with and ecosystem function of biodiversity offsets in North American and European freshwaters

Land-use change via human development is a major driver of biodiversity loss. To reduce these impacts, billions of dollars are spent on biodiversity offsets. However, studies evaluating offset project effectiveness that examine components such as the overall compliance and function of projects remain rare. We reviewed 577 offsetting projects in freshwater ecosystems that included the metrics project size, type of aquatic system (e.g., wetland and creek), offsetting measure (e.g., enhancement, restoration, and creation), and an assessment of the projects’ compliance and functional success. Project information was obtained from scientific and government databases and gray literature. Despite considerable investment in offsetting projects, crucial problems persisted. Although compliance and function were related to each other, a high level of compliance did not guarantee a high degree of function. However, large projects relative to area had better function than small projects. Function improved when projects targeted productivity or specific ecosystem features and when multiple complementary management targets were in place. Restorative measures were more likely to achieve targets than creating entirely new ecosystems. Altogether the relationships we found highlight specific ecological processes that may help improve offsetting outcomes.     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.     

A palaeo-hydrogeological model for arsenic contamination in southern and south-east Asia

An argument is presented in which areas of natural arsenic contamination of modern groundwaters throughout Asia have a common origin. Arsenic originally accumulated in oceanic ferro-manganoan sediments of the eastern Palaeo-Tethys. This was further concentrated through oceanic crustal extinction in what later became the south-east Chinese accreted mineralised terrain. Proto-Himalayan uplift of this area created the palaeo-drainage systems of the Ganges – Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy, Mekong, and Red Rivers, with consequent headwater erosion of arsenic-rich sediments. Their downstream deposition as immature and easily redistributed Neogene sandstones, silts, and iron-rich clays has created secondary and tertiary reservoirs of adsorbed and authigenic arsenic, from which the current arsenic-rich groundwaters have evolved. Considering river basins within the above palaeo-hydrogeological framework provides a basis for assessing the risk of arsenic in groundwater basins of south and south-eastern Asia.     

Sequestration of cucurbitacin analogs by New and Old World chrysomelid leaf beetles in the tribe Luperini

Summary Two South American polyphagous leaf beetles,Diabrotica speciosa andCerotoma arcuata, selectively accumulated the bitter tasting compound 23,24-dihydrocucurbitacin D in their body after ingesting root tissues of cucurbit plants. Similarly, three Asian Cucurbitaceae-feeding specialists in the genusAulacophora were found to sequester the same compound. Cucurbitacin analogs were shown to deter feeding by a bird predator, indicating an allomonal role for these compounds in cucurbitacin-associated chrysomelid leaf beetles both of New and Old Worlds. The strong affinity to cucurbitacins, selective sequestration of the analogs and consequent protection from predators suggested an ecological adaptation mechanism developed in common among these two geographically isolated subtribes in the Luperini.     

Threats to intact tropical peatlands and opportunities for their conservation

Large, intact areas of tropical peatland are highly threatened at a global scale by the expansion of commercial agriculture and other forms of economic development. Conserving peatlands on a landscape scale, with their hydrology intact, is of international conservation importance to preserve their distinctive biodiversity and ecosystem services and maintain their resilience to future environmental change. We explored threats to and opportunities for conserving remaining intact tropical peatlands; thus, we excluded peatlands of Indonesia and Malaysia, where extensive deforestation, drainage, and conversion to plantations means conservation in this region can protect only small fragments of the original ecosystem. We focused on a case study, the Pastaza‐Marañón Foreland Basin (PMFB) in Peru, which is among the largest known intact tropical peatland landscapes in the world and is representative of peatland vulnerability. Maintenance of the hydrological conditions critical for carbon storage and ecosystem function of peatlands is, in the PMFB, primarily threatened by expansion of commercial agriculture linked to new transport infrastructure that is facilitating access to remote areas. There remain opportunities in the PMFB and elsewhere to develop alternative, more sustainable land‐use practices. Although some of the peatlands in the PMFB fall within existing legally protected areas, this protection does not include the most carbon‐dense (domed pole forest) areas. New carbon‐based conservation instruments (e.g., REDD+, Green Climate Fund), developing markets for sustainable peatland products, transferring land title to local communities, and expanding protected areas offer pathways to increased protection for intact tropical peatlands in Amazonia and elsewhere, such as those in New Guinea and Central Africa which remain, for the moment, broadly beyond the frontier of commercial development.     

Effects of Controlled Fire and Livestock Grazing on Bird Communities in East African Savannas

Abstract: In East Africa fire and grazing by wild and domestic ungulates maintain savannas, and pastoralists historically set fires and herded livestock through the use of temporary corrals called bomas. In recent decades traditional pastoral practices have declined, and this may be affecting biodiversity. We investigated the effects of prescribed fires and bomas on savanna bird communities in East Africa during the first and second dry seasons of the year (respectively before and after the rains that mark the onset of breeding for most birds). We compared abundance, richness, and community composition on 9‐ha burned plots, recently abandoned bomas, and control plots in the undisturbed matrix habitat over a 3‐year period. Generally, recently burned areas and abandoned bomas attracted greater densities of birds and had different community assemblages than the surrounding matrix. The effects of disturbances were influenced by interactions between primary productivity, represented by the normalized difference vegetation index, and time. Bird densities were highest and a greater proportion of species was observed on burned plots in the months following the fires. Drought conditions equalized bird densities across treatments within 1 year, and individuals from a greater proportion of species were more commonly observed on abandoned bomas. Yearly fluctuations in abundance were less pronounced on bomas than on burns, which indicate that although fire may benefit birds in the short term, bomas may have a more‐lasting positive effect and provide resources during droughts. Several Palearctic migrants were attracted to burned plots regardless of rainfall, which indicates continued fire suppression may threaten their already‐declining populations. Most notably, the paucity of birds observed on the controls suggests that the current structure of the matrix developed as a result of fire suppression. Traditional pastoralism appears critical to the maintenance of avian diversity in these savannas.     

Cost‐effective conservation of an endangered frog under uncertainty

How should managers choose among conservation options when resources are scarce and there is uncertainty regarding the effectiveness of actions? Well‐developed tools exist for prioritizing areas for one‐time and binary actions (e.g., protect vs. not protect), but methods for prioritizing incremental or ongoing actions (such as habitat creation and maintenance) remain uncommon. We devised an approach that combines metapopulation viability and cost‐effectiveness analyses to select among alternative conservation actions while accounting for uncertainty. In our study, cost‐effectiveness is the ratio between the benefit of an action and its economic cost, where benefit is the change in metapopulation viability. We applied the approach to the case of the endangered growling grass frog (Litoria raniformis), which is threatened by urban development. We extended a Bayesian model to predict metapopulation viability under 9 urbanization and management scenarios and incorporated the full probability distribution of possible outcomes for each scenario into the cost‐effectiveness analysis. This allowed us to discern between cost‐effective alternatives that were robust to uncertainty and those with a relatively high risk of failure. We found a relatively high risk of extinction following urbanization if the only action was reservation of core habitat; habitat creation actions performed better than enhancement actions; and cost‐effectiveness ranking changed depending on the consideration of uncertainty. Our results suggest that creation and maintenance of wetlands dedicated to L. raniformis is the only cost‐effective action likely to result in a sufficiently low risk of extinction. To our knowledge we are the first study to use Bayesian metapopulation viability analysis to explicitly incorporate parametric and demographic uncertainty into a cost‐effective evaluation of conservation actions. The approach offers guidance to decision makers aiming to achieve cost‐effective conservation under uncertainty.