Weak Governmental Institutions Impair the Management of Pesticide Import and Sales in Zanzibar

Poor pesticide handling practices and risk-awareness among African farmers puts human health and the environment at risk. To investigate information available to farmers in Zanzibar (Tanzania), an interview study was conducted with retailers, and governmental pesticide importation to Zanzibar was examined. Pesticide retailers in Zanzibar did not have the necessary knowledge to safely handle or to advise farmers on proper use of pesticides. Licensed shop owners were rarely found in the shops; instead, untrained personnel were employed to sell the pesticides. Implementation of the legislation was weak, mainly due to lack of surveillance by governmental institutions. Poor governmental importation practices and unregulated private imports indicate serious weakness in the management of pesticide importation in Zanzibar. The situation calls for increased attention on the monitoring of pesticide importation and sales to protect the health of farmers and retailers, as well as the environment.     

Pesticide residues in fruits and vegetables in Ghana: a review

Pesticides are known to improve agriculture yield considerably leading to an increase in its application over the years. The use of pesticides has shown varying detrimental effects in humans as well as the environment. Presently, enough evidence is available to suggest their misuse and overuse in the last few decades in most developing nations primarily due to lack of education, endangering the lives of farmers as well as the entire population and environment. However, there is paucity of data especially over long durations in Ghana resulting in the absence of effective monitoring programs regarding pesticide application and subsequent contamination in fruits and vegetables. Therefore, this review discusses comprehensively pesticide type and use, importation, presence in fruits and vegetables, human exposure, and poisoning in Ghana. This is to alert the scientific community in Ghana of the need to further research into the potential implications of pesticide residues in food commodities in order to generate a comprehensive and reliable database which is key in drafting policies simultaneous with food regulation, suitable monitoring initiatives, assessment, and education to minimize their effects thereon.     

Estimating the risks and benefits of pesticides: considering the agroecosystem and integrated pest management in the use of EBDC fungicides on apples

Calculating the risks and benefits of agricultural pesticides determines whether a pesticide will be registered for use on commodities. Historically, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has used very conservative estimates of health risks, particularly in the absence of data regarding actual use patterns of the pesticide and actual pesticide residue at the point of food purchase. However, when grower groups and manufacturers were faced with the problem of losing the ethylene bisdithiocarbamate (EBDC) fungicides, they approached EPA offering to provide hard data in place of estimates. Plant pathologists familiar with apple agroecosystems pointed out that different fungicides have highly specific uses in integrated pest management (IPM) programs, and that banning EBDC use on apples would probably raise total pesticide use in apples by compromising the pesticide reductions obtained under existing IPM programs. In addition, an early study showed that use-patterns could significantly reduce the amount of EBDC residue on apples. This approach led to a more realistic appraisal of both risks and benefits of the fungicides, lowering risks and raising benefits. The process ended with a registration prescribing use-patterns which result in minimal residue at harvest, thus providing valuable tools for use in IPM programs.     

Pesticide pollution in agricultural areas of Northern Vietnam: case study in Hoang Liet and Minh Dai communes

Soils and agricultural products from the Red River basin in Northern Vietnam were reported to be contaminated by agrichemicals. To assess potential exposure of local farmers and consumers to these contaminants, pesticide use and management practices of local farmers were surveyed and residue concentrations were determined for recently used as well as for banned pesticides in water, soil, vegetables, and fish samples in two communes of Northern Vietnam. DDTs, HCHs, and Drin compounds still persist at relatively high concentrations in soil and occur in vegetable and fish samples. Recently used pesticides, such as fenobucarb, trichlorfon, cyfluthrin, and cypermethrin were detected in vegetable and fish samples. Thresholds for acceptable daily intake levels (ADI) were frequently reached in the analyzed food products pointing to the fact that current pesticide management practices do not only result in a pollution of the environment but also pose threats to human health.     

Oxidative stress,hematological and biochemical alterations in farmers exposed to pesticides

In this study, a cohort of farmers from the Mateur region in the North of Tunisia, were interviewed and examined for the biochemical effects of pesticides. We studied their haematological profile, lipid parameters, serum markers of nephrotoxicity and hepatotoxicity. We also evaluated the activities of Butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and thiolactonase-paroxonase (PON). Moreover, lipid peroxidation and activities of antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) were determined. The duration of pesticide use and the farmers’ age were considered in the analysis. Our results revealed significant differences in some haematological parameters, in liver and kidney functions, in the lipidic status of the pesticide-exposed group. We also reported an increase in the index of incidence of cardiovascular risk in farmer populations. A significant decrease in AChE, BChE and PON levels was found among farmers. Lipid peroxidation, however, increased. The activities of SOD and CAT were remarkably elevated in farmer populations. There was a significant relation between changes in biological markers, the duration of pesticide use and the farmers’ age. This study indicates that a long-term exposure to pesticides may play an important role in the development of vascular diseases via metabolic disorders of lipoproteins, lipid peroxidation and oxidative stress, inhibition of BChE and decrease in thiolactonase-PON levels.     

Isolation and characterization of a Pseudomonas aeruginosa from a virgin Brazilian Amazon region with potential to degrade atrazine

The use of pesticides to increase agricultural production can result in the contamination of the environment, causing changes in the genetic structure of organisms and in the loss of biodiversity. This practice is also inducing changes in the rainforest ecosystem. In this work, a Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolated from a preservation soil area of the Brazilian Amazon Forest, without usage of any pesticide, was evaluated for its potential to degrade atrazine. This isolate presented all responsible genes (atzA, atzB, atzC, atzD, atzE, and atzF) for atrazine mineralization and demonstrated capacity to use atrazine as a nitrogen source, having achieved a reduction of 44 % of the initial concentration of atrazine after 24 h. These results confirm gene dispersion and/or a possible contamination of the area with the herbicide, which reinforces global concern of the increase and intensive use of pesticides worldwide.     

The impact of pesticides toward parrotfeather when applied at the predicted environmental concentration

Pesticides pose a serious risk for aquatic macrophytes in the environment. They are also detrimental to the rooted macrophytes used in bioassays for assessment. Currently, no data is available for impact of pesticides toward parrotfeather when present at the predicted environmental concentration. The calculated expected environmental concentration was applied to the plants and the effect was compared. Eight of the 18 pesticides showed significantly different impact. All of the other tested pesticides induced a significant change in pigment content of parrotfeather. The RQ values for risk quotient had a value higher than 0.5, so need regulatory action for environment. This study may be the first to evaluate the predicted environmental concentrations reported by pesticide registration in Europe. Additional studies are required to test all pesticides within one group since the compounds tested may depict a wide toxicity level. Furthermore, the tests should include more than one macrophyte, e.g. one rooted and one non-rooted species, in order to provide a better understanding on pesticide toxicity.     

The Forum of the International HCH and Pesticides Association—a platform for international cooperation

The unsustainable life cycle management of pesticides in the last 60 years has created large pesticide stockpiles. The two major working areas of the International HCH and Pesticide Association (IHPA; www.ihpa.info) address a part of these legacies and are shortly introduced here: (1) The assessment and support of the management of the worlds single largest POPs stockpile: the globally dumped 4 to 7 million tonnes hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) wastes from lindane production, and (2) the support for the management of the obsolete pesticides legacy in Eastern Europe, the Caucasus and Central Asia (EECCA) countries of ~240,000 t, leaving these pesticides in unregulated storages without adequate safety control being a huge risk to the environment and human health. The integrative approach IHPA takes—promoting international cooperation and the exchange of knowledge and experiences—is shortly explained. IHPA has developed various supporting tools for its work: the IHPA web page and newsletter informing on the threats and challenges, but also on the progresses of managing pesticide stockpiles; the joint GIZ-PAN-IHPA exhibition on awareness of the pesticide stockpile challenge; and the ‘International HCH and Pesticides Forum’ as most important tool to progress the integrative work and mission of IHPA. Finally, a summary of the 11th International HCH and Pesticides Forum held in Gabala, Azerbaijan is given which brought together more than 120 scientists, policy-makers, non-governmental and international organisations, industry and students from more than 40 countries to progress the obsolete pesticides and hazardous chemical waste challenge in EECCA countries. The event finished with adoption of ‘Gabala Declaration’, which aims to mobilise efforts of all stakeholders for prevention and elimination of POPs, obsolete pesticides, and hazardous chemical waste in the region.     

The status of pesticide pollution in surface waters (rivers and lakes) of Greece. Part I. Review on occurrence and levels

This review evaluates and summarizes the results of long-term research projects, monitoring programs and published papers concerning the pollution of surface waters (rivers and lakes) of Greece by pesticides. Pesticide classes mostly detected involve herbicides used extensively in corn, cotton and rice production, organophosphorus insecticides as well as the banned organochlorines insecticides due to their persistence in the aquatic environment. The compounds most frequently detected were atrazine, simazine, alachlor, metolachlor and trifluralin of the herbicides, diazinon, parathion methyl of the insecticides and lindane, endosulfan and aldrin of the organochlorine pesticides. Rivers were found to be more polluted than lakes. The detected concentrations of most pesticides follow a seasonal variation, with maximum values occurring during the late spring and summer period followed by a decrease during winter. Nationwide, in many cases the reported concentrations ranged in low ppb levels. However, elevated concentrations were recorded in areas of high pesticide use and intense agricultural practices. Generally, similar trends and levels of pesticides were found in Greek rivers compared to pesticide contamination in other European rivers. Monitoring of the Greek water resources for pesticide residues must continue, especially in agricultural regions, because the nationwide patterns of pesticide use are constantly changing. Moreover, emphasis should be placed on degradation products not sufficiently studied so far.     

Development and field validation of an indicator to assess the relative mobility and risk of pesticides in the Lourens River catchment,South Africa

A GIS based pesticide risk indicator that integrates exposure variables (i.e. pesticide application, geographic, physicochemical and crop data) and toxicity endpoints (using species sensitivity distributions) was developed to estimate the Predicted Relative Exposure (PREX) and Predicted Relative Risk (PRRI) of applied pesticides to aquatic ecosystem health in the Lourens River catchment, Western Cape, South Africa. Samples were collected weekly at five sites from the beginning of the spraying season (October) till the beginning of the rainy season (April) and were semi quantitatively analysed for relevant pesticides applied according to the local farmers spraying programme. Monitoring data indicate that physicochemical data obtained from international databases are reliable indicators of pesticide behaviour in the Western Cape of South Africa. Sensitivity analysis identified K_OC as the most important parameter influencing predictions of pesticide loading derived from runoff. A comparison to monitoring data showed that the PREX successfully identified hotspot sites, gave a reasonable estimation of the relative contamination potential of different pesticides at a site and identified important routes of exposure (i.e. runoff or spray drift) of different pesticides at different sites. All pesticides detected during a monitored runoff event, were indicated as being more associated with runoff than spray drift by the PREX. The PRRI identified azinphos-methyl and chlorpyrifos as high risk pesticides towards the aquatic ecosystem. These results contribute to providing increased confidence in the use of risk indicator applications and, in particular, could lead to improved utilisation of limited resources for monitoring and management in resource constrained countries.     

Obsolete pesticide storage sites and their POP release into the environment—an Armenian case study

Organochlorinated pesticides were widely applied in Armenia until the 1980s, like in all former Soviet Union republics. Subsequently, the problem of areas contaminated by organochlorinated pesticides emerged. Environmental, waste and food samples at one pesticide burial site (Nubarashen) and three former pesticide storage sites (Jrarat, Echmiadzin and Masis) were taken and analysed on the content of organochlorinated pesticides, polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and furans and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls. Gradient sampling and diffusivity-based calculations provided information on the contamination release from the hot spots on a local scale. A risk analysis based on samples of locally produced food items characterised the impact of storage sites on the health of nearby residents. All four sites were found to be seriously contaminated. High pesticide levels and soil and air contamination gradients of several orders of magnitude were confirmed outside the fence of the Nubarashen burial site, confirming pesticide release. A storage in Jrarat, which was completely demolished in 1996 and contained numerous damaged bags with pure pesticides until 2011, was found to have polluted surrounding soils by wind dispersion of pesticide powders and air by significant evaporation of lindane and β-endosulfan during this period. Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane-contaminated eggs, sampled from hens roaming freely in the immediate surroundings of the Echmiadzin storage site, revealed a significant health risk for egg consumers above 1E-5. Although small in size and previously almost unknown to the public, storage sites like Echmiadzin, Masis and Jrarat were found to stock considerable amounts of obsolete pesticides and have a significant negative influence on the environment and human health. Multi-stakeholder cooperation proved to be successful in identifying such sites suspected to be significant sources of persistent organic pollutants.     

Absorption of current use pesticides by snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina) eggs in treated soil

Reptiles often breed within agricultural and urban environments that receive frequent pesticide use. Consequently, their eggs and thus developing embryos may be exposed to pesticides. Our objectives were to determine (i) if turtle eggs are capable of absorbing pesticides from treated soil, and (ii) if pesticide absorption rates can be predicted by their chemical and physical properties. Snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina) eggs were incubated in soil that was treated with 10 pesticides (atrazine, simazine, metolachlor, azinphos-methyl, dimethoate, chlorpyrifos, carbaryl, endosulfan (I and II), captan, and chlorothalonil). There were two treatments, consisting of pesticides applied at application rate equivalents of 1.92 or 19.2 kg a.i/ha. Eggs were removed after one and eight days of exposure and analyzed for pesticides using gas chromatography coupled with a mass selective detector (GC-MSD) or high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Absorption of pesticides in eggs from soil increased with both magnitude and duration of exposure. Of the 10 pesticides, atrazine and metolachlor generally had the greatest absorption, while azinphos-methyl had the lowest. Chlorothalonil was below detection limits at both exposure rates. Our preliminary model suggests that pesticides having the highest absorption into eggs tended to have both low sorption to organic carbon or lipids, and high water solubility. For pesticides with high water solubility, high vapor pressure may also increase absorption. As our model is preliminary, confirmatory studies are needed to elucidate pesticide absorption in turtle eggs and the potential risk they may pose to embryonic development.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Aporrectodea caliginosa</Emphasis>, a relevant earthworm species for a posteriori pesticide risk assessment: current knowledge and recommendations for culture and experimental design

Ecotoxicological tests with earthworms are widely used and are mandatory for the risk assessment of pesticides prior to registration and commercial use. The current model species for standardized tests is Eisenia fetida or Eisenia andrei. However, these species are absent from agricultural soils and often less sensitive to pesticides than other earthworm species found in mineral soils. To move towards a better assessment of pesticide effects on non-target organisms, there is a need to perform a posteriori tests using relevant species. The endogeic species Aporrectodea caliginosa (Savigny, 1826) is representative of cultivated fields in temperate regions and is suggested as a relevant model test species. After providing information on its taxonomy, biology, and ecology, we reviewed current knowledge concerning its sensitivity towards pesticides. Moreover, we highlighted research gaps and promising perspectives. Finally, advice and recommendations are given for the establishment of laboratory cultures and experiments using this soil-dwelling earthworm species.     

Sensitized photodecomposition of high disperse pesticide chemicals exposed to sunlight and irradiation from halogen or mercury lamp

The kinetics of sensitized photolysis for four pesticides, deltamethrin (Decis), acrinathrin (Rufast), s-fenvalerate (Sumialpha), and propiconazol (Tilt) in thin films and aerosol particles was investigated under sunlight or the irradiation from halogen or mercury lamp. The peculiarities of principle of the photochemistry of pesticides in high disperse substance state were discussed. The quantum yields of sensitized and direct photolysis were measured, and the phenomenological kinetic mechanism of photolysis was proposed and examined. Four relations between six rate constants of reaction steps of the kinetic mechanism were determined. The use of sensitizers to accelerate the decomposition rates of pesticide pollutants under sunlight could minimize the contamination of agricultural commodities and the adjacent environment. The Shirvanol 2 sensitizer (a by-product of the full treatment of Caspian oils) can regulate decomposition of many pesticides in a wide range of photolysis rates, so that practically any desired lifetime could be really available for either pesticide residues on plant foliage or pesticide aerosol particles in the air.     

Spatial and temporal analysis of pesticides concentrations in surface water: pesticides atlas

Dutch water boards have a well-established program for monitoring pesticide contamination of surface waters. These monitoring data have been processed into a graphic format accessible online and designed to provide insight into pesticide presence in Dutch surface waters and trends over time: the Pesticides Atlas (http://www.pesticidesatlas.nl). With this tool one can easily get maps of where a pesticide is being measured and where it might possibly constitute an environmental problem over the years. Presently, results of the periods 1997/1998 until 2005/2006 are available at the level of individual active ingredients. At a national level, the percentage of pesticides concentrations that exceed the maximum tolerable risk has declined 30% to 38% over the years 2003/2004 compared with 1997/1998. This means that surface water quality in the Netherlands has improved with respect to pesticides, however there are still many locations at which the measured concentrations exceed the environmental quality standards. The results on linking land use to pesticides concentrations were shown to assist in optimization of monitoring programs. By developing the present Internet tool, many new opportunities for environmental risk assessment and risk management were identified, e.g. optimization of monitoring strategies and communication to policymakers.     

Contribution to the food products' analysis: A research and evaluation on the hemolytic effect of some pesticides used in Lebanon

Pesticides are a real concern for the society as their use has become critical, leading sometimes to their accumulation as residues in fruits and vegetables. After examining the pesticides sold in Northern Lebanon, this study is focused on the analysis and identification of pesticides residues in fruits and vegetables that are harvested in this region and treated with the locally sold pesticides. Results show: first, (i) a use of Zineb by the name of another pesticide Micronized Sulfur to avoid prosecution; (ii) a significant presence of Metalaxyl in lemons and oranges; (iii) a significant presence of Trifluralin in strawberries; and (iv) a significant presence of Zineb in lemons and tomatoes. Second, with the use of hemolytic tests on human blood results show: (i) a critical concentration and a significant hemolytic effect of some pesticides used in Lebanon; and (ii) an absence of hemolytic effect in the collected fractions of the different analyzed fruit extracts containing pesticides. Finally, this work is the first step for pesticides' analysis in vegetables and fruits in Lebanon, initiating a wider analytical study in order to control and examine the use of pesticides which, according to our results, could have an adverse effect on human health over a long term.     

Raman and SERS spectra of thiamethoxam and the Ag3–thiamethoxam complex: an experimental and theoretical investigation

Dutch water boards have a well-established program for monitoring pesticide contamination of surface waters. These monitoring data have been processed into a graphic format accessible online and designed to provide insight into pesticide presence in Dutch surface waters and trends over time: the Pesticides Atlas (http://www.pesticidesatlas.nl). With this tool one can easily get maps of where a pesticide is being measured and where it might possibly constitute an environmental problem over the years. Presently, results of the periods 1997/1998 until 2005/2006 are available at the level of individual active ingredients. At a national level, the percentage of pesticides concentrations that exceed the maximum tolerable risk has declined 30% to 38% over the years 2003/2004 compared with 1997/1998. This means that surface water quality in the Netherlands has improved with respect to pesticides, however there are still many locations at which the measured concentrations exceed the environmental quality standards. The results on linking land use to pesticides concentrations were shown to assist in optimization of monitoring programs. By developing the present Internet tool, many new opportunities for environmental risk assessment and risk management were identified, e.g. optimization of monitoring strategies and communication to policymakers.     

Enantioselectivity in environmental risk assessment of modern chiral pesticides

Chiral pesticides comprise a new and important class of environmental pollutants nowadays. With the development of industry, more and more chiral pesticides will be introduced into the market. But their enantioselective ecotoxicology is not clear. Currently used synthetic pyrethroids, organophosphates, acylanilides, phenoxypropanoic acids and imidazolinones often behave enantioselectively in agriculture use and they always pose unpredictable enantioselective ecological risks on non-target organisms or human. It is necessary to explore the enantioselective toxicology and ecological fate of these chiral pesticides in environmental risk assessment. The enantioselective toxicology and the fate of these currently widely used pesticides have been discussed in this review article.     

Assessment and review of organochlorine pesticide pollution in Kyrgyzstan

The current study describes the preliminary assessment and securing activities of the largest and most hazardous POPs-contaminated sites in Kyrgyzstan. In 2010, cattle died and population were found with high pesticide levels in blood, human milk, and placenta. In the first phase of the study, a historic assessment of the pesticide dumping at the landfill/dump sites have been conducted. In the second phase, soil analysis for organochlorine pesticides in the areas of the pesticide disposal sites, the former pesticides storehouses, agro-air strips, and the cotton-growing fields were conducted. By this assessment, a first overview of the types and sources of pollution and of the scale of the problem is compiled including information gaps. From major pesticides used, DDT, DDE, and HCH were measured in the highest concentrations. With the limited analytical capacity present, a reasonable risk assessment could be performed. This paper also reports on practical risk reduction measures that have been carried out recently at the two major pesticide disposal sites with support of a Dutch environmental engineering company, an international NGO (Green Cross Switzerland) and local authorities from the Suzak region within an UN project. Local population living near the sites of the former pesticide storehouses and agro-airstrips are advised not to cultivate vegetables and melons or to raise cattle on these areas. Instead, it is recommended to grow technical crops or plant trees. Further recommendations on monitoring and assessment is given including the suggestion to consider the findings in the National Implementation Plan of Kyrgyzstan.     

Deforestation control in Mato Grosso: a new model for slowing the loss of Brazil's Amazon forest

Controlling deforestation in Brazil's Amazon region has long been illusive despite repeated efforts of government authorities to slow the process. From 1997 to 2000, deforestation rates in Brazil's 9-state "Legal Amazon" region continually crept upward. Now, a licensing and enforcement program for clearing by large farmers and ranchers in the state of Mato Grosso appears to be having an effect. The deforestation rate in Mato Grosso was already beginning to slacken before initiation of the program in 1999, but examination of county-level data suggests that deforestation in already heavily cleared areas was falling due to lack of suitable uncleared land, while little-cleared areas were experiencing rapid deforestation. Following initiation of the program, the clearing rates declined in the recent frontiers. Areas with greater enforcement effort also appear to have experienced greater declines. Demonstration of government ability to enforce regulations and influence trends is important to domestic and international debates regarding use of avoided deforestation to mitigate global warming.