Flame retardants in indoor dust and air of a hotel in Japan

Occurrence of flame retardants (FRs) in the indoor environment of highly flame-retarded public facilities is an important concern from the viewpoint of exposure because it is likely that FRs are used to a greater degree in these facilities than in homes. For this study, brominated flame-retardants (BFRs) and organophosphate flame-retardants and plasticizers (OPs), and brominated dibenzo-p-dioxins/furans (PBDD/DFs) were measured in eight floor dust samples taken from a Japanese commercial hotel that was assumed to have many flame-retardant materials. Concentrations of polybrominated diphenylethers (PBDEs) and hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs) varied by about two orders of magnitude, from 9.8–1700 ng/g (median of 1200 ng/g) and from 72–1300 ng/g (median of 740 ng/g), respectively. Concentrations of the two types of BFRs described above were most dominant among the investigated BFRs in the dust samples. It is inferred that BFR and PBDD/DF concentrations are on the same level as those in house and office dust samples reported based on past studies. Regarding concentrations of 11 OPs, 7 OPs were detected on the order of micrograms per gram, which are equivalent to or exceed the BFR concentrations such as PBDEs and HBCDs. Concentrations of the investigated compounds were not uniform among dust samples collected throughout the hotel: concentrations differed among floors, suggesting that localization of source products is associated with FR concentrations in dust. Passive air sampling was also conducted to monitor BFRs in the indoor air of hotel rooms: the performance of an air cleaner placed in the room was evaluated in terms of reducing airborne BFR concentrations. Monitoring results suggest that operation of an appropriate air cleaner can reduce both gaseous and particulate BFRs in indoor air.     

Novel brominated flame retardants: a review of their analysis, environmental fate and behaviour

This review summarises current knowledge about production volumes, physico-chemical properties, analysis, environmental occurrence, fate and behaviour and human exposure to the "novel" brominated flame retardants (NBFRs). We define the term NBFRs as relating to BFRs which are new to the market or newly/recently observed in the environment. Restrictions and bans on the use of some polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) formulations, in many jurisdictions, have created a market for the use of NBFRs. To date, most data on NBFRs have arisen as additional information generated by research designed principally to study more "traditional" BFRs, such as PBDEs. This has led to a wide variety of analytical approaches for sample extraction, extract purification and instrumental analysis of NBFRs. An overview of environmental occurrence in abiotic matrices, aquatic biota, terrestrial biota and birds is presented. Evidence concerning the metabolism and absorption of different NBFRs is reviewed. Human exposure to NBFRs via different exposure pathways is discussed, and research gaps related to analysis, environmental sources, fate, and behaviour and human exposure are identified.     

A review on human exposure to brominated flame retardants--particularly polybrominated diphenyl ethers

Brominated flame retardants (BFRs) have been and are still heavily used as additive or reactive chemicals in polymers and textiles. Only a few of the BFRs have been assessed in human subjects with a major data set on internal exposures to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). Increasing PBDE levels have been observed in mothers' milk from Sweden as well as in blood from Germany and Norway. The levels are in general lower than PCB levels. However, the PBDE concentrations found in the North Americans are considerably higher compared to European subjects. The PBDEs are dominated by 2,2',4,4'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-47). Decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-209) is reported both in the general population and in occupationally exposed persons showing the bioavailability of this high molecular weight compound. While the lower and medium brominated diphenyl ethers are persistent, BDE-209 has a fairly short half-life of approximately 2 weeks. Tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) is readily eliminated in humans showing a half-life of about 2 days. Still, TBBPA is accumulated in humans but a continuous exposure to this BFR is required to maintain a certain level in the human subject. TBBPA has not been detected in the general population but in people exposed at work. The current review addresses human exposure routes and levels of BFRs.     

Metabolism in the toxicokinetics and fate of brominated flame retardants--a review

Several classes of brominated flame retardants (BFRs), namely polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), hexabromocyclododecane (HBCCD), bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy)ethane (BTBPE), and tris(2,3-dibromopropyl)phosphate (Tris), have been identified as environmental contaminants. PBDEs, TBBPA, and HBCCD are of particular concern due to increasing environmental concentrations and their ubiquitous presence in the tissues of humans and wildlife from Europe, Japan, and North America. Regardless, the toxicokinetics, in particular metabolism, of BFRs has received little attention. The present review summarizes the current state of knowledge of BFR metabolism, which is an important factor in determining the bioaccumulation, fate, toxicokinetics, and potential toxicity of BFRs in exposed organisms. Of the minimal metabolism research done, BFRs have been shown to be susceptible to several metabolic processes including oxidative debromination, reductive debromination, oxidative CYP enzyme-mediated biotransformation, and/or Phase II conjugation (glucuronidation and sulfation).However, substantially more research on metabolism is necessary to fully assess BFR fate, uptake and elimination kinetics, metabolic pathways, inter-species differences, the influence of congener structure, and the potential health risks to exposed organisms.     

Determination of brominated flame retardants,with emphasis on polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in environmental and human samples--a review

Analytical methods for the determination of brominated flame retardants (BFRs), with a special emphasis on polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are reviewed. A number of procedures, which can be applied to the analysis of PBDEs and polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs), and in some cases for hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD), in environmental and human samples are described. Because several BFRs, such as tetrabromobisphenol-A (TBBP-A), BDE 209 and, to some extent, HBCD, may require a different approach, specific advice on their analysis is given separately when needed. Sample pretreatment, extraction, cleanup and fractionation, injection techniques, chromatographic separation, detection methods, quality control and method validation are discussed. For each topic, an overview is given of the current status of the field and recommendations for an appropriate analytical approach are presented.     

Human exposure to PCBs, PBDEs and HBCDs in Ghana: Temporal variation, sources of exposure and estimation of daily intakes by infants

Human exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and brominated flame retardants (BFRs) such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs) was evaluated in Ghana using breast milk samples collected in 2004 and 2009. Mean levels and ranges of PBDEs (4.5; 0.86-18 ng/g lw) and PCBs (62; 15-160 ng/g lw) observed in the present study were unexpectedly high, in spite of the fact that Ghana is a non-industrialized country when compared with many of the Asian and European countries. Significant increases were found in the concentrations of PCBs and PBDEs over the years, while no significant increase was observed for HBCDs. Estimated hazard quotient (HQ) showed that all the mothers had HQ values exceeding the threshold of 1 for PCBs, indicating potential health risk for their children. PCBs in dirty oils and obsolete equipment should be of concern as potential sources in Ghana, and e-waste recycling with little or no experience in safe handling could be a threat to this sub-region noted for unregulated disposal of e-waste. The results may point towards an increase in trends in human milk in Ghana, especially in the larger cities but further analysis would be required to confirm this upward trend in levels. This is the first study to report BFRs in human breast milk from Africa, and undoubtedly from Ghana.     

An overview of commercially used brominated flame retardants,their applications,their use patterns in different countries/regions and possible modes of release

Brominated flame retardants (BFRs) are used in a variety of consumer products and several of those are produced in large quantities. These compounds have been detected in environmental samples, which can be attributed to the anthropogenic uses of these compounds. Brominated flame retardants are produced via direct bromination of organic molecules or via addition of bromine to alkenes; hence, an overview of the production and usage of bromine over the past three decades is covered. Production, application, and environmental occurrence of high production brominated flame retardants including Tetrabromobisphenol A, polybrominated biphenyls, Penta-, Octa-, Deca-brominated diphenyl ether (oxide) formulation and hexabromocyclododecane are discussed.     

Brominated flame retardants and polychlorinated biphenyls in human breast milk from several locations in India: potential contaminant sources in a municipal dumping site

This study investigated the status of contamination of organohalogen compounds (OCs) such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and brominated flame retardant (BFRs), including polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs) in human milk samples from several locations in India. The levels of OCs were significantly higher in the milk of mothers living in and near municipal dumping site than other locations indicating that the open dumping sites for municipal wastes act as potential sources of these contaminants in India. The PCB concentrations observed in this study tended to decrease compared to those in the matched locations reported previously, probably due to the restriction of technical PCB usage in India. PBDE levels in human milk were two to three folds lower than those of PCBs in all the sampling locations investigated. Congener profiles of PCBs and PBDEs were different between samples from the dumping site mothers and general populations in other areas suggesting the presence of region-specific sources and pathways. HBCDs were detected in human milk from only two sites, with much lower concentrations and detection frequencies compared to PCBs and PBDEs. When hazard quotients (HQs) of PCBs and PBDEs were estimated for infant health risk, the HQs in some milk samples from the dumping site exceeded the threshold value (HQ > 1) of PCBs, indicating the potential risk for infants in the specific site.     

Determinants of brominated flame retardants in breast milk from a large scale Norwegian study

Brominated flame retardants (BFRs), particularly polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), are widely present in human populations. In order to investigate human exposure pathways and associations with socioeconomic and lifestyle factors, 393 breast milk samples from mothers living in various regions throughout Norway were analyzed. Up to ten PBDE congeners were measured in all the samples, hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) and BDE-209 in subsets of 310 and 46, respectively. The median concentrations of the sum of the seven most prominent PBDEs (BDE-28, 47, 99, 100, 153, 154 and 183), BDE-209 and HBCD were 2.1, 0.32 and 0.86 ng/g lipids, respectively. These concentrations are comparable to the levels generally observed in human populations in Europe. The frequency distributions were quite skewed with long tails towards higher concentrations. Maternal age, parity, education, having a cohabitant employed as electrician, and ventilation were factors significantly associated with some of the BFRs, although these factors only explained a small amount of the variability (R² 0.04–0.16). The mothers' diet was not found to influence the breast milk PBDE and HBCD levels. Our results show that sources other than the diet are important for the variability seen in breast milk BFR concentrations and that exposure from the indoor atmosphere should be emphasized in future studies.     

Toxic effects of brominated flame retardants in man and in wildlife

Brominated flame retardants (BFRs) are ubiquitous industrial chemicals, and many of them are produced in large volumes. Due to this fact, several BFRs are found in quantifiable levels in wildlife, as well as in humans. However, we are still lacking information on the effects of BFR in wildlife and, especially, in man. This review summarises the biological effects of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) and derivates, hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) and polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs), however excluding other aspects such as environmental levels. These BFR groups were selected because of a large volume production (PBDEs, TBBPA and derivates), and availability of some toxicity data in spite of much lower production volumes (HBCD and PBBs). In addition, the increase in levels of PBDEs in human (breast milk) and wildlife samples during later time made it especially interesting to include this BFR group. PBDES: The commercial PBDE products predominantly consist of so-called penta-, octa- and decabromodiphenyl ether products. Each product consists of a rather narrow range of congeners and is named after the dominating congener as regards the bromination pattern. Generally, the PentaBDEs seem to cause adverse effects at the comparably lowest dose, whereas much higher doses were needed for effects of the DecaBDEs. The critical effects of PentaBDEs are those on neurobehavioural development (from 0.6 mg/kg body weight) and, at somewhat higher dose, thyroid hormone levels in rats and mice, of OctaBDEs on fetal toxicity/teratogenicity in rats and rabbits (from 2 mg/kg body weight), and of DecaBDEs on thyroid, liver and kidney morphology in adult animals (from 80 mg/kg body weight). Carcinogenicity studies, only performed for DecaBDEs, show some effects at very high levels, and IARC (1990) evaluates DecaBDEs not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans. TBBPA: The toxicity of TBBPA in the experimental in vivo studies is suggested to be low. In most reported studies, only doses in g/kg body weight were effective, but at least one study suggested renal effects at around 250 mg/kg body weight. Although difficult to include and interpret in a quantitative risk assessment, the in vitro effects on immunological and thyroid hormones, as well as binding to erythrocytes should be noted. Before a solid standpoint could be reached on TBBPA toxicity additional studies must be performed. This statement is even more valid regarding the TBBPA derivates, where there is an almost complete lack of toxicity data. HBCD: Also in the case of HBCD, relevant toxicity studies are lacking. Based on the present animal studies, a critical effect is seen in the liver and on thyroid hormones (LOAEL 100 mg/kg body weight/day). However, in a recent short paper behavioural effects in mice pups were observed already at 0.9 mg/kg body weight, and behavioural effects may be a sensitive endpoint for HBCD, as well as for other BFRs. PBBS: Due to the Michigan accident in 1973-1974, many toxicity studies on PBBs are available. The critical experimental effects are those on reproduction and carcinogenicity, and a NOAEL of 0.15 mg/kg body weight/day could be suggested based on the cancer effects. In man no unequivocal effects have been observed, although in some studies neurological and musculoskeletal symptoms were suggested. Based on the carcinogenic effects in animals, a human TDI of 0.15 microg/kg body weight has been presented.To conclude, the toxicity data are almost entirely based on experimental models. There are differences among the BFR groups, as well as within these groups, both regarding type of toxic effect and at what dose it appears. As BFRs will continue to appear both in industrial applications and, even if the production has ceased, in our environment, there is a continued need for effects studies on BFRs.     

Relevance of BFRs and thermal conditions on the formation pathways of brominated and brominated-chlorinated dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans

The widespread use of brominated flame-retarded products in the last two decades has resulted in an increasing presence of bromine in thermal processes such as waste combustion and accidental fires. Brominated and brominated-chlorinated dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans (PBDDs/PBDFs, PXDDs/PXDFs) are micropollutants of concern arising from such processes. The present review aims to evaluate the relevance of these compound classes in actual thermal processes. Four categories of thermal processes are discussed in this respect according to their potential for PBDD/PBDF and PXDD/PXDF generation: thermal stress, pyrolysis/gasification, insufficient combustion conditions and controlled combustion conditions. Under thermal stress situations, as they may occur in production or recycling processes, PBDDs/PBDFs precursors like polybrominated diphenylethers (PBDE) can have a relevant potential for PBDD/PBDF formation via a simple elimination. Under insufficient combustion conditions as they are present in, e.g. accidental fires and uncontrolled burning as well as gasification/pyrolysis processes, considerable amounts of PBDDs/PBDFs can be formed from BFRs, preferably via the precursor pathway. In contrast, under controlled combustion conditions, BFRs and PBDDs/PBDFs can be destroyed with high efficiency. The relevance of de novo synthesis of PXDDs/PXDFs is discussed for this condition.Providing a basis for the understanding of PXDD/PXDF formation in actual thermal processes, the present paper also summarises the formation pathways of brominated and brominated-chlorinated PXDDs/PXDFs from brominated flame retardants (BFRs) investigated during laboratory thermolysis experiments. Relevant mechanistic steps for PBDD/PBDF formation from brominated precursors are discussed including elimination reactions, condensation steps and debromination/hydrogenation reactions.In addition, chlorination/bromination and halogen exchange reactions are briefly discussed with respect for their relevance on the final distribution of PBDDs/PBDFs, mixed chlorinated PXDDs/PXDFs and PCDDs/PCDFs resulting from thermal processes.     

The brominated flame retardants,PBDEs and HBCD,in Canadian human milk samples collected from 1992 to 2005; concentrations and trends

Human milk samples were collected from individuals residing in various regions across Canada mostly in the years 1992 to 2005. These included five large cities in southern Canada as well as samples from Nunavik in northern Quebec. Comparative samples were also collected from residents of Austin, Texas, USA in 2002 and 2004. More than 300 milk samples were analysed for the brominated flame retardants (BFRs), PBDEs and HBCD, by extraction, purification and quantification using either isotope dilution gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) or liquid chromatography-MS. The Canadian total PBDE values in the years 2002–2005 show median levels of about 20 μg/kg on a lipid basis; a value significantly higher than in the 1980s and 1990s. Milk samples from Inuit donors in the northern region of Nunavik were slightly lower in PBDE concentrations than those from populated regions in the south of Quebec. Milk samples from Ontario contained slightly lower amounts of PBDEs in two time periods than those from Texas. HBCD levels in most milk samples were usually less than 1 ppb milk lipid and dominated by the α-isomer. This large data set of BFRs in Canadian human milk demonstrates an increase in the last few decades in human exposure to BFRs which now appears to have stabilized.     

Several current-use, non-PBDE brominated flame retardants are highly bioaccumulative: evidence from field determined bioaccumulation factors

With the phaseout of brominated flame retardants (BFRs) polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), some non-PBDE BFRs have prompted to be alternatives to the discontinued PBDEs. To assess the bioaccumulation potential of these chemicals, field bioaccumulation factors (BAFs) for several non-PBDE BFRs including hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs), 1,2-bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy)ethane (BTBPE), pentabromotoluene (PBT), pentabromoethylbenzene (PBEB), and hexabromobenzene (HBB), were determined in the aquatic species from a natural pond in an electronic waste recycling site in South China. The log BAFs ranged 2.58-6.01, 3.24-5.58, 3.44-5.98, 2.85-5.98, 3.32-6.08, 2.04-4.77, 2.72-4.09 and 3.31-5.54 for α-HBCD, β-HBCD, γ-HBCD, ∑HBCDs, BTBPE, PBT, PBEB, and HBB, respectively. The log BAF values for HBCD isomers, BTBPE, and HBB were greater than 3.7 (corresponding BAF value 5000) in most of the investigated species, demonstrating their highly bioaccumulative properties. α-, β-, and γ-HBCDs, BTBPE, and HBB appeared comparable or had even greater BAFs compared to PBDE congeners with similar K(OW), suggesting that these BFRs may have a potentially high environmental risk. The BAFs for the given BFR compound were largely variable between species, due to the species-specific feeding ecology, trophic level, and metabolic capacity for these pollutants. Positive linear relationships between log BAF and log K(OW) (r2 = 0.59, p = 0.04), and molecular weight (r2 = 0.54, p = 0.06) of non-PBDE BFRs were observed in the species with low trophic level (Chinese mysterysnail), suggesting that the chemical's physicochemical properties also played key roles in the bioaccumulation processes.     

Serum concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and a polybrominated biphenyl (PBB) in men from Greenland,Poland and Ukraine

Many brominated flame retardants (BFRs)—including polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs)—have been shown to persist in the environment, and some have been associated with adverse health effects. The aim of the present study was to quantify serum concentrations of common brominated flame retardants in Inuit men from across Greenland, and in men from Warsaw, Poland and Kharkiv, Ukraine. Serum was sampled between 2002 and 2004 from men 19 to 50 years of age. 299 samples were analyzed for BDE-28, 47, 99, 100, 153, 154 and 183 and the brominated biphenyl BB-153 using gas chromatography–high resolution mass spectrometry. BDE-47 and BDE-153 were detected in more than 95% of samples from all three populations. All other congeners, except BDE-154, were detected in more than 70% of samples from Greenland; lower detection frequencies were observed in Polish and Ukrainian samples. Concentrations of individual congeners were 2.7 to 15 fold higher in Greenlandic relative to Polish and Ukrainian men. Geometric mean concentrations of the sum of the most abundant PBDEs of the Penta-BDE commercial mixture (BDE-47, 99, 100, 153 and 154) were 6.1, 1.7 and 0.87 ng/g lipids in the Greenlandic, Polish and Ukrainian men, respectively. Furthermore, significant geographical differences in BFR concentrations were observed within Greenland. Principal component analysis revealed distinct clustering of samples by country of origin. The associations between ΣPBDEs and age were inconsistent, varying from no association in Greenlandic and Polish study populations to a U-shaped relationship in Ukrainians. We report BFR levels for three populations for which sparse biomonitoring data exists.     

Variation, levels and profiles of organochlorines and brominated flame retardants in great tit (Parus major) eggs from different types of sampling locations in Flanders (Belgium)

Small-scale geographical variation in the occurrence of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) was investigated using the eggs of a terrestrial residential songbird species, the great tit (Parus major). In addition, we investigated the influence of the type of sampling location on the presence of these pollutants. To achieve this, 10 different sampling locations in Flanders (Belgium) were classified into 3 groups based on the extent of urbanisation, industrialisation and agriculture. The higher variance among sampling locations for the levels and profiles of PCBs and OCPs, suggests that local contamination sources are more important for the PCBs and OCPs compared to the PBDEs. Levels of PCBs and PBDEs were significantly higher in the industrialised sampling locations compared to the other locations. Sum PCB and sum PBDE levels reached up to 6050 and 79 ng/g lipid weight, respectively. PCBs and PBDEs were highly positively correlated for all groups, suggesting similar exposure pathways and/or mechanisms of accumulation. Significantly higher levels of OCPs (sum OCPs up to 2683 ng/g lipid weight) were detected in the rural sampling locations situated in a residential area. This suggests that local historical usage of OCPs by inhabitants may be an important source of contamination in Flanders. Contamination profiles differed also among the sampling locations. The rural sampling locations had a higher contribution of lower brominated BDE congeners, whereas the industrialised locations had a higher contribution of higher brominated congeners. The differences in contamination profiles among the sampling locations are probably due to differences in exposure. In conclusion, our results showed that the characteristics of a sampling location influence both the levels and profiles of PCBs, OCPs and PBDEs.     

Brominated flame retardants and seafood safety: A review

Brominated flame retardants (BFRs), frequently applied to industrial and household products to make them less flammable, are highly persistent in the environment and cause multi-organ toxicity in human and wildlife. Based on the review of BFRs presence in seafood published from 2004 to 2014, it is clear that such pollutants are not ideally controlled as the surveys are too restricted, legislation inexistent for some classes, the analytical methodologies diversified, and several factors as food processing and eating habits are generally overlooked. Indeed, while a seafood rich diet presents plenty of nutritional benefits, it can also represent a potential source of these environmental contaminants. Since recent studies have shown that dietary intake constitutes a main route of human exposure to BFRs, it is of major importance to review and enhance these features, since seafood constitutes a chief pathway for human exposure and biomagnification of priority environmental contaminants. In particular, more objective studies focused on the variability factors behind contamination levels, and subsequent human exposure, are necessary to support the necessity for more restricted legislation worldwide.     

Brominated flame retardants and organochlorines in the European environment using great tit eggs as a biomonitoring tool

Large-scale studies are essential to assess the emission patterns and spatial distribution of organohalogenated pollutants (OHPs) in the environment. Bird eggs have several advantages compared to other environmental media which have previously been used to map the distribution of OHPs. In this study, large-scale geographical variation in the occurrence of OHPs, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), was investigated throughout Europe using eggs of a terrestrial residential passerine species, the great tit (Parus major). Great tit eggs from 22 sampling sites, involving urban, rural and remote areas, in 14 European countries were collected and analysed (5-8 eggs per sampling site). The environmentally most important congeners/compounds of the analysed pollutants were detectable in all sampling locations. For PCBs, PBDEs and OCPs, no clear geographical contamination pattern was found. Sum PCB levels ranged from 143 ng/g lipid weight (lw) to 3660 ng/g lw. As expected, PCB concentrations were significantly higher in the sampled urban compared to the remote locations. However, the urban locations did not show significantly higher concentrations compared to the rural locations. Sum PBDEs ranged from 4.0 ng/g lw to 136 ng/g lw. PBDEs were significantly higher in the urbanized sampling locations compared to the other locations. The significant, positive correlation between PCB and PBDE concentrations suggests similar spatial exposure and/or mechanisms of accumulation. Significantly higher levels of OCPs (sum OCPs ranging from 191 ng/g lw to 7830 ng/g lw) were detected in rural sampling locations. Contamination profiles of PCBs, PBDEs and OCPs differed also among the sampling locations, which may be due to local usage and contamination sources. The higher variance among sampling locations for the PCBs and OCPs, suggests that local contamination sources are more important for the PCBs and OCPs compared to the PBDEs. To our knowledge, this is the first study in which bird eggs were used as a monitoring tool for OHPs on such a large geographical scale.     

Country specific comparison for profile of chlorinated,brominated and phosphate organic contaminants in indoor dust. Case study for Eastern Romania, 2010

We have evaluated the levels and specific profiles of several organohalogenated contaminants, including organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and flame retardants (FRs), such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs), novel brominated FRs (NBFRs), and organophosphate FRs (OPFRs), in 47 indoor dust samples collected in 2010 from urban locations from Iasi, Eastern Romania. The dominant contaminants found in the samples were OPFRs (median sum OPFRs 7890 ng/g). Surprisingly, OCPs were also measured at high levels (median 1300 ng/g). Except for BDE 209 (median 275 ng/g), PBDEs were present in dust samples at relatively low levels (median sum PBDEs 8 ng/g). PCBs were also measured at low levels (median sum PCBs 35 ng/g), while NBFRs were only occasionally detected, showing a low usage in goods present on the Romanian market. The results of the present study evidence the existence of a multitude of chemical formulations in indoor dust. FRs are usually associated to human exposure via ingestion of dust, but other chemicals, such as OCPs, are not commonly reported in such matrix. Although OCPs were found at comparable levels with OPFRs in Romanian dust, OCPs possess a higher risk to human health due to their considerably lower reference dose (RfD) values. Indeed, the OCP exposure calculated for various intake scenarios was only 2-fold lower than the corresponding RfD. Therefore, the inclusion of OCPs as target chemicals in the indoor environment becomes important for countries where elevated levels in other environmental compartments have been previously shown.     

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers and persistent organochlorines in Japanese human adipose tissues

The present study determined concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and persistent organochlorines (OCs) in Japanese human adipose tissues collected during 2003–2004. Concentrations of PBDEs in adipose tissues were 1–2 orders of magnitude lower than those of OCs. However, observed PBDE congener levels in this study were relatively higher than those in Japanese human adipose tissues collected during 2000 reported previously, while OC levels were comparable to those in specimens collected during 1999 reported by our group. In addition, no age-dependent accumulation of PBDEs was observed, while OC levels except chlordane compounds increased with age. These results indicate recent human exposure to PBDEs in Japan. Among PBDE congeners accumulated in Japanese adipose tissues, BDE-153 was dominant, but this trend was different from those in human milk (BDE-47) and blood (BDE-209) reported previously in Japan, implying the congener-specific kinetics in human bodies. The significant positive correlations between PBDEs and OCs were observed in Japanese adipose tissues, indicating the similar exposure route of these contaminants for Japanese citizens, probably via fish intake.     

Health effects of polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PBDDs) and dibenzofurans (PBDFs)

This article reviews the state of the science regarding the health effects of polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PBDDs) and dibenzofurans (PBDFs). While thousands of articles have been published on the health effects of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin and related polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDDs) and dibenzofurans (PCDFs), little is know about the brominated and mixed chloro/bromo homologs. Available literature suggests that brominated compounds have similar toxicity profiles to their chlorinated homologs. However, further research investigating health effects will only be useful if exposure scenarios truly exist. Current exposure data is extremely limited, posing a major data gap in assessing potential risk of these chemicals. The rapid increase in the use of brominated flame retardants has raised the level of environmental concern regarding PBDDs/PBDFs as it is likely that human, as well as wildlife, exposure to brominated dioxins and furans will increase with their use.