A comparison of biodegradable municipal waste (BMW) management strategies in Ireland and the Czech Republic and the lessons learned

In order to meet the recycling and recovery targets set forth by the European Union's (EU) Waste and Landfill Directives, both the Irish and Czech governments’ policy on waste management is changing to meet these pressures, with major emphasis being placed upon the management of biodegradable municipal waste (BMW). In particular, the EU Landfill Directive requires reductions in the rate of BMW going to landfill to 35% of 1995 values by 2016 and 2020 for Ireland and the Czech Republic, respectively. In this paper, the strategies of how Ireland and the Czech Republic plan to meet this challenge are compared. Ireland either landfills or exports its waste for recovery, while the Czech Republic has a relatively new waste management infrastructure. While Ireland met the first target of 75% diversion of BMW from landfill by 2010 and preliminary 2012 data indicate that Ireland is on track to meet the 2013 target, the achievement of the 2016 target remains at risk. Indicators that were developed to monitor the Czech Republic's path to meeting the targets demonstrate that it did not meet the first target that was set for 2010 and will probably not meet its 2013 target either. The evaluation reports on the implementation of Waste Management Plan of Czech Republic suggest that the currently applied strategy to divert biodegradable waste from landfill is not effective enough. For both countries, the EU Waste Framework and Landfill Directives will be a significant influence and driver of change in waste management practices and governance over the coming decade. This means that both countries will not only have to invest in infrastructure to achieve the targets, but will also have to increase awareness among the public in diverting this waste at the household level. Improving environmental education is part of increased awareness as it is imperative for citizens to understand the consequences of their actions as affluence continues to grow producing increased levels of waste.     

Integrating waste, manufacturing and industrial symbiosis: an analysis of recycling, remanufacturing and waste treatment firms in Texas

The continually increasing volume of the waste stream has led to numerous calls for strategies to close the loop on material use through industrial symbiosis strategies which direct used material and products (wastes) back to production processes. By use of a survey of recycling, remanufacturing and waste treatment firms in Texas, this paper asks if these firms can operate as a bridge between production and consumption/waste to efficiently increase the flow of used materials and products back to production processes at the local level. The results suggest that while most materials and used products are collected locally, only some can be re(consumed) locally. Moreover, the firms face negative perceptions about their activities from industry and the public at large that likely slow both the rate of entry of new firms into these markets and the expansion possibilities of existing firms. In addition, the types of conventions that characterize the interactions of more successful firms are not well developed in this sector(s). It is unlikely that recycling, remanufacturing and waste treatment firms can become central players in the production, consumption and waste cycle loop until society develops production design, marketing and consumption philosophies that include recycling and remanufacturing at a fundamental level.     

Integrating waste,manufacturing and industrial symbiosis: an analysis of recycling,remanufacturing and waste treatment firms in Texas

The continually increasing volume of the waste stream has led to numerous calls for strategies to close the loop on material use through industrial symbiosis strategies which direct used material and products (wastes) back to production processes. By use of a survey of recycling, remanufacturing and waste treatment firms in Texas, this paper asks if these firms can operate as a bridge between production and consumption/waste to efficiently increase the flow of used materials and products back to production processes at the local level. The results suggest that while most materials and used products are collected locally, only some can be re(consumed) locally. Moreover, the firms face negative perceptions about their activities from industry and the public at large that likely slow both the rate of entry of new firms into these markets and the expansion possibilities of existing firms. In addition, the types of conventions that characterize the interactions of more successful firms are not well developed in this sector(s). It is unlikely that recycling, remanufacturing and waste treatment firms can become central players in the production, consumption and waste cycle loop until society develops production design, marketing and consumption philosophies that include recycling and remanufacturing at a fundamental level.     

Do the variable charges really increase the effectiveness and economy of waste management? A case study of the Czech Republic

According to the European regulation regarding waste management (which is reflected in the increasing pressure on municipal waste separation and recycling) the choice of suitable political instruments seems to be crucial. Based on scientific research, the variable charges are considered as an effective choice for the regulation. Unfortunately, scientific research is not followed by a local decision making process within the Czech Republic. One of the reasons discussed in this paper is the economy of variable charges and their influence on administrative costs and total costs of the municipal waste management system. There is no doubt that the effectiveness of variable charges is higher than by fixed fees, but the crucial question for local representatives is not the effectiveness but the economy of charges in the waste management.     

Hong Kong citizens' attitude towards waste recycling and waste minimization measures

In a street survey conducted in Hong Kong, it was found that Hong Kong people generally support waste recycling and minimization measures. The results showed that statistically there are associations between sex, accommodation type, education levels and age on one hand and people's attitude toward some waste recycling and minimization measures on the other. A significant number of the surveyed subjects would feel uneasy during the generation of waste if they knew that the recyclable materials would not be recycled. However, this feeling of uneasiness will lessen considerably if the materials are being recycled. With the feeling of uneasiness being lessened, a deterring factor on consumption was weakened. Thus it is plausible that when recycling is more widely carried out, the actual volume of consumption will increase if the urgency of waste minimization is not widely understood. It was also discovered that in an economically prosperous Hong Kong, people can be more supportive to slightly more expensive green products than in Western countries in recession.     

Challenges facing the sustainable consumption and waste management agendas: perspectives on UK households

The management of municipal waste is one of the most emotive local environmental issues in the UK at present and represents a key sustainability “battleground” as local authorities seek to reduce waste arisings and encourage the reuse and recycling of materials among households. Within the literature on household waste management, a broad range of disciplinary perspectives and practical recommendations exist and it is the aim of this paper to step back and take stock of the role of households and communities in resource consumption and waste generation patterns across the UK within recent decades. By exploring the household in this context, trends in consumption and waste generation are outlined in addition to key influencing factors such as lifestyles and well-being, demographics and environment. Finally, key lessons learnt, challenges faced going forward and approaches for developing more sustainable practices at the household, community and national levels are discussed.     

Assessment of physical economy through economy-wide material flow analysis in developing Uzbekistan

In this paper, we assess the physical dimensions of Uzbekistan's economy during 1992–2011 by using the economy-wide material flow analysis (EW-MFA) method, which is an internationally recognized tool for such assessments. There have been a number of studies using methodological standardization of EW-MFA, but to the best of our knowledge, it has never been used to assess the metabolism of Central Asian economies, especially, in this case, the Republic of Uzbekistan.Our analysis strives to empirically evaluate macroscopic economic activities by considering the accounting of material flows. The material flows data-set comprises of consistent data for domestic extraction, imports, and exports, as well as other derived MFA-based indicators.The derived indicators are internationally compared for further evaluation of national economic development performance in a given period. The indicators of direct material input (DMI) and total material requirements (TMR) showed a slight increase in 1992–2011 with an average annual increase of 2.79% and 2.34%. The trends of TMR, DMI, domestic material consumption (DMC) and material efficiency, which is indicated by GDP/DMI, displayed lower values than other industrialized countries referenced in the international comparison. Although national economic performance data showed particularly remarkable success, indicators measuring material inputs and DMC reveal an insignificant increase during the period of study. During the second decade of study period, relative decoupling has occurred which indicated that the economic indicator (GDP) grows faster than DMC and other macro indicators grow.     

我国城市生活垃圾回收利用率测算及其统计数据收集对策

我国将生活垃圾分类收集定位为重要民生工程和生态文明建设的工作内容,并对实施生活垃圾强制分类的示范城市明确提出了"生活垃圾回收利用率"的绩效考核目标。由于城市生活垃圾处理和再生资源回收利用由不同职能部门负责管理,不同来源的生活垃圾回收利用统计数据未有效整合,目前还缺乏我国城市生活垃圾回收利用率指标测算的相关研究。本文界定了"生活垃圾回收利用率"的科学内涵,并以城市建设、再生资源利用等统计资料和物质流分析文献为基础,初步测算了全国尺度的城市生活垃圾回收利用率。研究表明,我国2006—2015年的城市生活垃圾回收利用率从12.1%上升至17.0%,然后又缓慢下降至15.6%,由于数据缺乏,该数值可能在-28%~+32%波动。生活垃圾中回收利用量较大的可再生资源分别为废纸、废塑料、废钢铁、废玻璃等。本文还分析了目前测算生活垃圾回收利用率的数据不确定性和局限性,提出了面向生活垃圾分类管理实际评价的统计数据收集对策。     

Recycling and consumption in Germany and Japan: a case of toilet paper

This paper compares the recycling attitudes of consumers in Germany and Japan, based on our nationwide questionnaires. We analyzed consumption behavior as well as recycling behavior in narrow sense, because it is important to study the former to see how the supply of recycled materials is balanced with the demand, particularly in Japan which exports little recycled materials. Toilet paper was adopted as a specific good for study, because consumers have options of buying virgin products and recycled products. It was found that German households pay for waste collection specifically and have higher recycling rates than Japanese households. On the other hand, similar figures in German and Japanese consumers were observed with regard to consumption of recycled products. Their purchasing criteria and preference on virgin and recycled products of toilet paper were examined by self-report and blind test with 2×2 experimental design for toilet paper (German versus Japanese, virgin versus recycled). Blind test showed that people prefer domestic and virgin products in both countries. Half of respondents rating virgin products guessed that the products contained recycled material. For Japanese, the material of the sample toilet paper, made from virgin pulp, seems to be a more determining factor than the nationality of products, i.e. made in Japan. On the other hand, for Germans, the domestic nature seems to be a more dominant factor than the material, i.e. made from virgin material. Canonical discriminant analysis in conjunction with logistic regression based on self-reporting data detected the characters ‘multiplied’, ‘appearance’ and ‘brand’ as major factors making the difference in preference between the two countries. The possible reasons causing the similarity and dissimilarity between the two countries are discussed with reference to the background history.     

Determining the socially optimal recycling rate

What municipal recycling rate is socially optimal? One credible answer would consider the recycling rate that minimizes the overall social costs of managing municipal waste. Such social costs are comprised of all budgetary costs and revenues associated with operating municipal waste and recycling programs, all costs to recycling households associated with preparing and storing recyclable materials for collection, all external disposal costs associated with waste disposed at landfills or incinerators, and all external benefits associated with the provision of recycled materials that foster environmentally efficient production processes. This paper discusses how to estimate these four components of social cost to then estimate the optimal recycling rate.     

The potential contribution of sustainable waste management to energy use and greenhouse gas emission reduction in the Netherlands

Future limitations on the availability of selected resources stress the need for increased material efficiency. In addition, in a climate-constrained world the impact of resource use on greenhouse gas emissions should be minimized. Waste management is key to achieve sustainable resource management. Ways to use resources more efficiently include prevention of waste, reuse of products and materials, and recycling of materials, while incineration and anaerobic digestion may recover part of the embodied energy of materials. This study used iWaste, a simulation model, to investigate the extent to which savings in energy consumption and CO₂ emissions can be achieved in the Netherlands through recycling of waste streams versus waste incineration, and to assess the extent to which this potential is reflected in the LAP2 (currently initiated policy). Three waste streams (i.e. household waste, bulky household waste, and construction and demolition waste) and three scenarios compare current policy to scenarios that focus on high-quality recycling (Recycling+) or incineration with increased efficiency (Incineration+). The results show that aiming for more and high-quality recycling can result in emission reductions of 2.3 MtCO₂ annually in the Netherlands compared to the reference situation in 2008. The main contributors to this reduction potential are found in optimizing the recycling of plastics (PET, PE and PP), textiles, paper, and organic waste. A scenario assuming a higher energy conversion efficiency of the incinerator treating the residual waste stream, achieves an emission reduction equivalent to only one third (0.7 MtCO₂/year) of the reduction achieved in the Recycling+ scenario. Furthermore, the results of the study show that currently initiated policy only partially realizes the full potential identified. A focus on highest quality use of recovered materials is essential to realize the full potential energy and CO₂ emission reduction identified for the Netherlands. Detailed economic and technical analyses of high quality recycling are recommended to further evaluate viable integrated waste management policies.     

Industrial and urban symbiosis in Japan: Analysis of the Eco-Town program 1997–2006

Japan's Eco-Town Program spearheaded in Japan the integration of Industrial Symbiosis and Urban Symbiosis, seeking to maximise the economic and environmental benefit from close geographic proximity of industrial and urban areas, through the use of previously discarded commercial, municipal and industrial waste materials in industrial applications. The program established 26 Eco-Towns around Japan. Approximately 1.65 billion USD was invested in 61 innovative recycling projects, with an average government subsidy of 36%. In addition at least 107 other recycling facilities have been constructed without government subsidy. 14 Eco-Towns primarily contributed to improving industry's productivity, whilst 10 Eco-Towns primarily contributed to improving environmental amenity. In 16 Eco-Towns the private sector was the most important actor supporting local government in the realisation of the Eco-Town, whilst in 9 Eco-Towns this was civil society. The availability of investment subsidies, the coming into force of ambitious recycling legislation with quantified, product-specific targets, access to the significant technological resources of the private sector, and widespread recognition of the urgency to act on environmental issues, all contributed to the success of the Eco-Town Program.     

Sustainable management of demolition waste—an integrated model for the evaluation of environmental, economic and social aspects

A model is presented for evaluating waste management systems for their contribution to a sustainable development, including environmental, economic and social aspects. The model was tested in a case-study, where groups of long-term unemployed people were offered both education on environmental issues and practical work with the recovery and recycling of building and demolition waste as a form of vocational development. Application of the suggested model revealed the overall effects on sustainability of different methods of waste management. In addition, negative aspects of the systems analysed were identified, which led to discussions about possible improved practices within the waste management systems. Two of the waste management systems investigated (the recycling of steel and re-use of sanitary porcelain) showed a potential contribution to sustainable development in all of the aspects studied. Preparing bricks for re-use showed the largest potential for eco-efficiency, but had negative effects on sustainability from the social perspective of health and the working environment. The possibility of further use of the model and the remaining obstacles to such analyses are discussed. One observation is that the data collection needed to perform this kind of sustainability analysis is resource-demanding, and that it would therefore be better to identify a smaller number of key indicators.     

Public participation in plastics recycling schemes

Without public contributions, recycling from domestic waste would not be possible. In order to support recycling projects it is important to try to understand who recycles, how they recycle, and why they recycle. This paper presents the results of a structured survey of 500 members of the public served by schemes to collect plastics waste for recycling. Data were gathered on the characteristics, behaviours and motivations of recyclers. The authors also sought to discover how the public perceive plastics compared to other materials, and as a recyclable material. Responses were collected in such a way that the awareness of the recyclability of materials could be compared with the recycling behaviour of respondents. An element of comparison was introduced between those served by a system of bottle banks (bring scheme) and those covered by a household collection (collect scheme). The survey results are reported and their implications for the management of post-consumer plastics waste collection schemes are discussed.     

Cost‐benefit analysis of paper recycling: a case study and some general principles

This paper sets out the legislative background to the recycling of waste materials in the UK. Relevant items in this background include: the provision of recycling credits under the 1990 Environmental Protection Act; the draft EC Packaging Waste Directive; and the German DSD scheme. We next set out the elements of a cost‐benefit analysis of waste paper recycling, including the environmental impacts of recycling. The method is then applied to a recycling scheme in central Scotland. We find that whilst on private, financial grounds the scheme is unattractive, it passes the cost‐benefit test in the base‐line case; this justifies government support for this recycling scheme, given the data used.     

Phosphorus recovery and recycling from waste: An appraisal based on a French case study

Phosphate rocks, used for phosphorus (P) fertilizer production, are a non-renewable resource at the human time scale. Their depletion at the global scale may threaten global food and feed security. To prevent this depletion, improved P resource recycling from food chain waste to agricultural soils and to the food and feed industry is often presented as a serious option. However, waste streams are often complex and their recycling efficiency is poorly characterized. The aim of this paper is to estimate the P recovery and recycling potential from waste, considering France as a case study. We assessed the P flows in food processing waste, household wastewater and municipal waste at the country scale using a substance flow analysis for the year 2006. We also quantified the P recycling efficiency as the fraction of P in waste that ultimately reached agricultural soils or was recycled in the food and feed industry. Efforts were made to limit data uncertainty by cross-checking multiple data sources concerning P content in waste materials. Results showed that, in general, P recovery in waste was high but that the overall P recycling efficiency was only 51% at the country scale. In particular, P recycling efficiency was 75% for industrial waste, 43% for household wastewater and 47% for municipal waste. The remaining P was discharged into water bodies or landfilled, causing P-induced environmental problems as well as losses of nutrient resources. Major P losses were through food waste (which amounted to 39% of P in available food) and treated wastewater, and the findings were confirmed through cross-checking with alternative data sources. Options for improving P resource recycling and, thereby, reducing P fertilizer use were quantified but appeared to be less promising than scenarios based on reduced food waste or redesigned agricultural systems.     

Is Municipal Solid Waste Recycling Economically Efficient?

It has traditionally been argued that recycling municipal solid waste (MSW) is usually not economically viable and that only when externalities, long-term dynamic considerations, and/or the entire product life cycle are taken into account, recycling becomes worthwhile from a social point of view. This article explores the results of a wide study conducted in Israel in the years 2000–2004. Our results reveal that recycling is optimal more often than usually claimed, even when externality considerations are ignored. The study is unique in the tools it uses to explore the efficiency of recycling: a computer-based simulation applied to an extensive database. We developed a simulation for assessing the costs of handling and treating MSW under different waste-management systems and used this simulation to explore possible cost reductions obtained by designating some of the waste (otherwise sent to landfill) to recycling. We ran the simulation on data from 79 municipalities in Israel that produce over 60% of MSW in Israel. For each municipality, we were able to arrive at an optimal method of waste management and compare the costs associated with 100% landfilling to the costs born by the municipality when some of the waste is recycled. Our results indicate that for 51% of the municipalities, it would be efficient to adopt recycling, even without accounting for externality costs. We found that by adopting recycling, municipalities would be able to reduce direct costs by an average of 11%. Through interviews conducted with representatives of municipalities, we were also able to identify obstacles to the utilization of recycling, answering in part the question of why actual recycling levels in Israel are lower than our model predicts they should be.     

Transitions of municipal solid waste management. Part II: Hybrid life cycle assessment of Swiss glass-packaging disposal

In policy support of municipal solid waste (MSW) management, life cycle assessment (LCA) can serve to compare the environmental or economic impacts of two or more options for waste processing. The scope of waste management LCAs generally focuses less attention on future developments, e.g., where will recycling take place, and more on the environmental performance of prototypes, e.g., the incineration of all waste compared to recycling. To provide more robust support for Swiss waste glass-packaging disposal, scenarios of Swiss waste glass-packaging are assessed from a life cycle perspective. The scenarios consist in schemes for the disposal of the total amount of Swiss waste glass-packaging, i.e., different combinations of recycling and downcycling in Switzerland or abroad developed in Part I, Meylan et al. (2013). In this article (Part II), the disposal schemes are assessed with respect to eco-efficiency, an indicator that combines total environmental impacts and gross value added in Switzerland. Results show that no policy alternative guarantees environmental impact reductions and gross value added gains under all developments of exogenous constraints. Downcycling to foam glass in Switzerland is not only an environmentally sound disposal option, but it also buffers gross value added losses in case domestic recycling (and thus glass-packaging production in Switzerland) ceases in the future. The substitution of products based on raw materials other than Swiss cullet is the main responsible for change in environmental and economic impacts. Hence, an eco-efficiency maximizing policy should consider the products of disposal schemes. The combination of scenario analysis and eco-efficiency assessment as presented in this paper can be applied to other contexts (i.e., countries, waste fractions).     

Overview of household solid waste recycling policy status and challenges in Malaysia

With the annual increase in waste generation and heavy reliance on landfilling as disposal, method in Malaysia, it is just a matter of time before significant problems of space limitations, health, and environmental issues hit the nation severely. This paper attempts to develop an overview on solid, waste recycling in Malaysia at the most basic level of a community or nation which is the household, unit. Households are the main primary source of municipal solid waste in Malaysia, consisting of, recyclable materials at most 70% to 80% of the total waste composition as found placed in the, landfills. Overview on the existing household solid waste recycling policy and program status in, Malaysia is relevant in enhancing solid waste management measure from recycling perspective. Despite the high potential and opportunities for solid waste recycling, wastes are still simply being, dumped in an open area of ground without any attempt for recovery and recycling. Comparing to, recycling rates of neighboring countries, Malaysia is falling back at merely 5% which proves how, uncommon recycling practice is. The government is committed to significantly improve the national's, solid waste management services especially in waste minimization. Fortunately the emphasis on, recycling as a sustainable waste management strategy has taken a shift in paradigm as wastes, separation and recycling are part of the major changes in the current policy implementation. With, issues and challenges in recycling practice that were highlighted in this context especially from the, aspects of information availability and other loopholes within solid waste management policies and, related recycling program within the community, the question on whether the goals in 2020 can be, met remains unsure of but there is a possibility for a successful implementation of sustainable solid, waste management particularly in recycling.     

Kerbside collection: A case study from the north-west of England

It is widely agreed that public support is vital to the success of most recycling schemes; the actions of householders are paramount to the success of sustainable waste policies. However, the success of recycling schemes is not just dependent on public participation; it is also dependent on careful planning, effective design and tailoring to local needs.This study has evaluated a kerbside recycling scheme in the north-west of England by comparing the recycling performance of those on alternate collections of residual waste and recyclates with those on weekly residual collections and fortnightly recyclate collections. Three data collection methodologies were adopted: postal questionnaires, set-out rate monitoring, and personal interviews with policy writers.The results demonstrated that alternate collections produce higher recycling set-out rates, suggesting that alternate collections will also generate higher recycling rates. The research showed that if designed and complemented by other services, then an alternate collection system is a realistic waste management approach. However, the local authority and the public appear to use different indicators of success for the scheme. The local authority uses governmental performance indicators (such as best value performance indicators—BVPIs) to measure success, whereas the public's indicators of success tend to focus more on issues such as required changes to established behaviours, convenience and personal preferences.A key recommendation from this study is that all local authorities should carry out local opinion surveys on an annual basis to supplement the BVPIs required by statute. This should help them to fill the information gaps in order to provide a comprehensive, up-to-date and user-responsive waste management service to the public.