应对气候变化:国际谈判历程及主要经济体的态度与政策

为解决气候变化问题,联合国设立了政府间气候变化专门委员会,召开了十五次国际气候变化大会,取得了《联合国气候变化框架公约》、《京都议定书》与"巴厘岛路线图"等重要成果,确定了各国尤其是发达国家的温室气体排放减少义务,为应对气候变化问题确立了基本框架。国际社会已准备就《京都议定书》以后的国际气候制度框架进行谈判,各国官方机构、学术机构与学者围绕减排义务的类型、区别对待与责任分担,提出了多种方案。发达经济体是温室气体减排义务的主要承担者,同时也是全球气候合作的主要参与者。美国的气候政策出现了重大转变,奥巴马总统将气候变化政策作为重点政策领域之一;欧盟与日本则一直积极推动全球温室气体减排;发展中经济体也积极参与国际气候合作,如印度已制订了《气候变化国家行动方案》。作为发展中国家,中国不需承担气体排放减少量化任务,但仍积极参与这一历史进程,做出了自己的贡献。     

温室气体减排政策:国际经验及对中国的启示——基于政策工具演进的视角

将气候问题的主要利益集团和国家分为三组,欧盟(以英国、法国、德国为代表)、伞形国家集团(以美国、日本、加拿大、澳大利亚为代表)和发展中国家(印度、巴西、南非等),近似代表气候政策的一、二、三3个梯队。全面扫描这些国家标准和管制政策、财政政策工具、排放权交易、自愿协议、信息工具、研发政策等主要政策工具的使用情况。同时,选择温室气体排放总量变动趋势以及环境监管能力作为政策环境因素,试图反映气候政策工具应用条件"从低到高"的"阶段性"的特征。通过对上述国家和地区温室气体减排政策工具应用情况的国际比较,总结了减排政策工具应用的基本经验,得出了对我国的启示:继续运用好标准和管制为代表的"传统"政策工具;充分考虑政策工具的应用条件,稳步推进"高级"政策工具;加强温室气体减排政策工具之间的协调;以提高能源效率作为温室气体政策工具的核心目标;近期应谨慎推出碳税;循序稳妥推进碳市场建设。     

中美两国选择不同时间开始减排二氧化碳的模拟研究

气候保护是一个国际性问题,气候保护政策的有效实施,离不开世界各国的共同努力.中国和美国作为世界上主要的两个碳排放大国,对世界气候保护进程具有重要的影响.本文通过建立一个多国气候保护宏观动态经济模拟系统,模拟中美两国在不同时期开始减排对世界主要国家经济和全球气候变化的影响.模拟发现,在研究中国减排进入时间的问题时,相对不减排情况,中国在讨论的五个情景里参与减排都会给中国的经济带来损失,而且越早参与减排,GDP损失的越多.世界其他国家都从中国的减排方案中获得了利益.和讨论的中国进入方案相似,美国实施减排政策与不实施减排政策相比,本国的累积GDP会损失,而世界其他国家累积GDP会增加.从对世界温度的影响来看,两国实施减排与不实施减排的影响程度较为接近.从对全球累积GDP的影响来看,美国的减排政策对全球GDP的影响要大于中国的减排政策对全球GDP的影晌.     

特朗普“去气候化”政策对全球气候治理的影响

美国特朗普政府宣布退出《巴黎协定》是当前全球气候治理中最受舆论关注的问题,对事态发展趋势的判断和事件影响的评估是最为亟需的。本文系统分析了特朗普政府上任后推行的一系列"去气候化"政策,以及其退出《巴黎协定》的主要动因和可能形式,同时量化评估了这些内政外交的"倒退"对美国实施国家自主贡献目标以及全球气候治理格局的实质影响,并据此提出了中国应对全球气候治理新形势变化的对策和建议。研究表明,特朗普政府"美国优先"的能源政策根植于复兴制造业和加大基础设施投资的经济利益动机,随着特朗普"去气候化"进程持续发酵,诸多气候政策面临存续风险,美国实施国家自主贡献将面临严峻挑战,"倒行政策"将有可能使美国温室气体排放出现反弹。如果不考虑中、高危气候政策,美国2025年温室气体排放也仅能相对2005年下降11.0%—14.9%,距离下降26%—28%的国家自主贡献目标相去甚远。同时,特朗普政府拒绝继续履行向发展中国家提供气候资金支持的义务,将有可能导致绿色气候基金拖欠资金总额上升117%,并进一步挫伤全球低碳投资的信心。没有美国的全球气候治理3.0时代将呈现出新的复杂特征,并不可避免地造成减排、资金和领导力缺口的持续扩大,也不排除后续会出现消极的跟随者,整体进程将可能进入一个低潮周期。虽然国际社会对中国引领全球气候治理充满期待,但中国仍应审慎对待,长远谋划应对气候变化的内政外交战略,而不应将"气候举旗"看作是一蹴而就的短期策略,对各种要求中国发挥"领导作用"的说法保持清醒头脑。在今后气候谈判中,美国仍有较大可能会二次"要价",中国作为排放大国的压力依然不容小觑,中美气候关系需要再定位。     

中国大气污染治理绩效及其对世界减排的贡献

碳排放和大气污染作为威胁人类生存的重要环境问题,越来越受到国内外的广泛关注。中国既是碳排放大国,又面临严重的大气污染问题,其对全球减排市场的影响极其重要。然而作为最大的发展中国家,中国肩负的发展任务与减排之间存在一定冲突。鉴此,本文应用多国动态可计算一般均衡模型研究了要素变动、自发性能效改进和外生性能源技术进步对中国长期经济增长、大气污染治理和温室气体减排的影响,并估算了中国实现碳减排目标(2030年碳排放量达到峰值,且2050年碳排放量为2015年的50%)情景下的大气污染排放量及对世界减排的溢出效应。在排放物种类方面,本文将考察多种温室气体(二氧化碳、甲烷、一氧化二氮和全氟化合物)和污染气体(二氧化硫、氮氧化物、挥发性有机化合物和一氧化碳)的排放情况。研究结果表明:①污染气体减排和温室气体减排具有协同效益。当达到碳减排目标时,2050年基准情景下二氧化硫、氮氧化物、一氧化碳和挥发性有机化合物的排放量分别减少了34. 51%、31. 36%、10. 42%和22. 75%。②按照现有的能源技术难以有效减少未来的温室气体和污染气体排放。只有当中国各产业部门能效增长达到年均约2. 6%时,中国才能在不牺牲经济增长的前提下实现其减排目标。③中国碳减排对全球减排有正溢出效应,尤其对周边地区、美国、欧盟等贸易来往密切的经济体影响较大。基于以上结果,本文提出了一些政策建议,比如加大对新能源领域的投资力度;在鼓励生育和实现减排目标之间做出一定程度的权衡;发挥中国的大国示范作用并以全球"人类命运共同体"为载体推动生态环境治理约束制度的构建等。     

中国道路交通系统的碳减排政策综述

气候变化问题已成为国际社会高度关注的热点。作为世界上第二大温室气体排放部门,交通部门的减排形势不容乐观。首先指出政策制度的创新和发展是推动道路交通领域碳减排和实现低碳发展的重要驱动因素;其次,以系统论和环境经济学为指导,构建了中国道路交通低碳政策矩阵,并分别讨论了燃油经济性标准、车用替代燃料、新能源汽车、燃油税等多项政策;最后强调指出单纯依靠某一种或某一类政策来实现道路交通系统的温室气体减排目标是不现实的,不同政策组合或综合性战略的减排效果比较显著。所以,进一步健全完善道路交通系统温室气体减排政策体系,加大政策创新力度应该成为有效实现道路交通碳减排目标、促进国民经济可持续发展的战略选择。     

部分国家碳减排方案及其基本依据

二氧化碳是导致全球气候变暖最重要的温室气体．碳减排是缓解温室效应的一项重要措施．因而成为全球变化研究中的热点。在分析国际上主要利益集团中主要代表国家的碳减排方案的基础上．分析各个集团不同减排方案的基本依据。欧盟主张对灵活性机制的运用予以严格限制．强调发达国家应将主要精力放在本土的减排上．强烈反对允许以参与灵活机制来替代降低排放指标。伞形集团要求实施自由的排放权交易和灵活执行KP，主张对其应用不加任何限制．这是伞型国家的主要利益交合点。发展中国家共有的主要观点为：支持严格执行京都议定书．强调“共有但有区别的责任”的减排原则，认为发达国家应对温室气体排放负最大的责任并应率先减排。     

污染减排的协同效应评价研究——以攀枝花市为例

从来源和产生机理上看,传统污染物控制措施会对温室气体减排产生一定的协同效应。量度污染减排的协同效应对成本有效地实现减排目标以及传统污染物和全球温室气体减排"双赢"具有重要意义。本研究以总量减排的"工程减排"、"结构减排"和"管理减排"三种手段为出发点,根据污染减排项目种类和不同脱硫工艺,开发了分类式污染减排的协同效应评价方法。并据此,以攀枝花市为案例,对其"十一五"29项总量减排措施进行了定量评价。研究表明,总量减排措施对减缓全球温室气体排放既有正效益,也有负效应,还有0的情况存在,不同减排技术和措施产生不同的协同效应,但总体上有显著的正协同效益。     

重庆市温室气体排放系统动力学研究

在全球气候变暖和快速城市化的背景下,开展城市温室气体减排研究十分迫切。重庆作为中国五大中心城市之一和西部唯一的直辖市,其协调经济发展和节能减排的实现模式对广大西部地区具有重要示范意义。本研究从社会经济发展的内部结构出发,以经济和人口增长导致的能源消费为核心,构建重庆市温室气体排放的系统动力学模型。研究中考虑不同投资率下的高、中、低三种经济发展模式,并在此基础上设置节能和低碳情景,探求节能水平提高、能源结构改善和碳汇能力增强对未来重庆温室气体排放的影响。模拟结果表明,产业能耗水平降低即节能情景,是重庆市温室气体减排的主要途径,对保证2020年中国单位GDP二氧化碳排放比2005年下降40%-45%目标的实现具有一定借鉴意义。最后本文在产业结构、能源消费、碳汇增加等方面针对重庆未来低碳经济发展提出对策建议。     

甲烷排放与应对气候变化国家战略探析

甲烷的全球变暖潜势是二氧化碳的72倍(20年水平),但其在大气中的寿命短于二氧化碳,可以作为优先减排对象。中国的甲烷排放十分突出,甲烷减排在应对气候变化国家战略中具有重要的基础性地位,然而在政策研究中,甲烷受到的关注程度远低于二氧化碳。本文基于甲烷排放研究的相关进展,首次系统性地论述了中国甲烷排放与应对气候变化国家战略之间的关系。主要结论是:甲烷排放的有效控制和减缓可以成为中国温室气体减排的重要组成部分,甲烷等温室气体的减排战略要用"系统减排"思路替代传统的"末端减排"思路;甲烷系统减排的策略和实施措施不仅需要重视主要排放部门(如煤炭开采与洗选业,农业)的直接末端减排,更需要突出强调建设活动、城市消费、资本投资和出口贸易等消费端的间接体现减排;在国际气候谈判中通过纳入甲烷排放,可以至少在五个方面丰富和支撑中国的国家立场,如从承诺"单位GDP二氧化碳减排"向承诺"单位GDP温室气体减排"转变。     

中国低碳试点省份发展路径研究

近百年来,全球气候正经历以变暖为主要特征的显著变化。为应对气候变化,减少温室气体排放已经成为国际社会的共识。作为世界上最大的发展中国家和最大的二氧化碳排放国之一,应对气候变化离不开中国的参与。2010年8月,中国国家发展和改革委员会确定在陕西、广东、辽宁、湖北、云南五省开展低碳试点工作。本文以这五个省份为研究对象,根据1995-2009年统计年鉴数据,基于STIRPAT模型定量分析了人口规模、城市化水平、富裕度、产业结构和能源强度对碳排放的影响,并根据分析的结果给出了五个低碳试点省份低碳发展路径:陕西省建设低碳省份应该从产业结构和能源强度两方面入手;广东省除控制人口规模外,还应该调整能源结构,倡导低碳生活方式;辽宁省降低碳排放主要应该从能源强度方面入手;湖北省应该从能源强度、产业结构和人口规模三个方面着手;云南省主要应该从人口规模入手,控制人口增长,提高人口素质,实现碳减排目标。     

Climate Change Responsibility and China＇s Endeavor

The problem of climate change is a global challenge. It is closely associated with social development and human survival, and it has a significant impact to all countries on energy develop- ment, economic competitiveness, technological innovation, and way of life. In recent years, with the rapid economic development in China, there is a rumor that the rapid growth of China＇s carbon dioxide emission offset the efforts of the international community in reducing emissions, and China should bear the international responsibility corresponding to its significant role in greenhouse gas emission, which obviously are unfair and not objective. As this paper reveals, ＂China environment responsibility＂ that is the socalled ＂China environment threat＂ or theories, China has made a positive contribution to addressing the climate change in the past and China will still be the backbone on the protection of global climate in the future.     

Climate Change Responsibility and China’s Endeavor

The problem of climate change is a global challenge.It is closely associated with social development and human survival,and it has a significant impact to all countries on energy development,economic competitiveness,technological innovation,and way of life.In recent years,with the rapid economic development in China,there is a rumor that the rapid growth of China’s carbon dioxide emission offset the efforts of the international community in reducing emissions,and China should bear the international responsibility corresponding to its significant role in greenhouse gas emission,which obviously are unfair and not objective.As this paper reveals,"China environment responsibility" that is the socalled "China environment threat" or theories,China has made a positive contribution to addressing the climate change in the past and China will still be the backbone on the protection of global climate in the future.     

The estimation of influencing factors for carbon emissions based on EKC hypothesis and STIRPAT model: Evidence from top 10 countries

Environment, Development and Sustainability - Global climate change due to greenhouse gas emissions has observable impacts on environment. Among the GHG emissions, carbon dioxide is the primary...     

Carbon Budget Proposal： An Institutional Framework for an Equitable and Sustainable World Climate Regime

Consensus on reducing greenhouse gas emissions has been reached at the technical and political level.However,as the issue involves economic costs and the right to develop,the international institutional framework for addressing greenhouse gas emissions has consistently failed to balance the demands of impartiality and sustainability.However,a sustainable carbon budget proposal is undoubtedly achievable if the global carbon budget (the total amount of carbon permitted by climate security) is made an absolute constraint.If a preliminary distribution was made among the world’s population on a per capita basis,the total limited global carbon budget could not only meet basic needs but also ensure the proposal’s equitable.Taking into account historical emission levels and future needs,we should carry out carbon budget transfer payments and devise a corresponding funding mechanism to ensure efficient allocation under the proposal.Unlike the phase-by-phase progress and provisional goals of the Kyoto Protocol,the carbon budget proposal outlined above is a comprehensive and holistic package.Due to the politicization of the climate change issue,however,many technical issues can only be worked out through international political and diplomatic negotiations.     

Certainty and uncertainty in understanding global warming

Global warming has greatly concerned the whole world. Owing to the limitation we currently have, it is still difficult to completely understand the mechanism and physical science of climate change. Now both certainty and uncertainty coexist in the understanding of climate warming. This paper aims to summarize certainties and uncertainties in climate-warming studies, which focus on seven key problems related to human activities, namely, global warming, atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases, relationship between greenhouse gas emissions and climate warming, climate models, future climate change, 2°C warming threshold and tipping point in the Earth’s system. We should comprehensively take into account the level of certainty and uncertainty in our understanding of climate change while adapting to and mitigating global warming and adjusting our industrial structures accordingly. This would allow us to respond to change with certainty, while avoiding the risks associated with uncertainty.     

Certainty and uncertainty in understanding global warming

Global warming has greatly concerned the whole world.Owing to the limitation we currently have,it is still difficult to completely understand the mechanism and physical science of climate change.Now both certainty and uncertainty coexist in the understanding of climate warming.This paper aims to summarize certainties and uncertainties in climate-warming studies,which focus on seven key problems related to human activities,namely,global warming,atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases,relationship between greenhouse gas emissions and climate warming,climate models,future climate change,2?warming threshold and tipping point in the Earth's system.We should comprehensively take into account the level of certainty and uncertainty in our understanding of climate change while adapting to and mitigating global warming and adjusting our industrial structures accordingly.This would allow us to respond to change with certainty,while avoiding the risks associated with uncertainty.     

Overview of regulatory/policy/economic issues related to carbon dioxide

This is an overview of Session 2c dealing with the regulatory, policy and economic issues related to carbon dioxide and its impact on global climate change. The information is taken from the two papers presented in this session (the U.S. Perspective by Dennis Leaf and the European Perspective by Hans J.H. Verolme) and from the panel discussion that took place at the end of the session. The overview focuses primarily on the policy responses of both the United States (US) and the United Kingdom (UK) to changes in global atmospheric pollution. To a lesser extent, the progress of policy responses to these changes is discussed. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) has been signed and ratified by over 180 countries. The UNFCCC contained no binding targets or timetables for emissions reductions. The Kyoto Protocol [United Nations. Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. UNEP.IUC/99/10. Chatlelaine, Switzerland: United Nations Environment Programme's Information Unit for Conventions, for the Climate Change Secretariat, 1997] to the UNFCCC did contain targets and timetables for reductions of greenhouse gases on the part of developed countries. The US has signed but not ratified the Kyoto Protocol. The US has experienced some movement to reduce greenhouse gas emissions on the part of various levels of government, as well as the private sector. The UK's commitment to reducing green house gases is laid down in the UK Climate Change Programme 2000. The UK is a member of the European Union (EU). In this context, an example of EU-wide progress, the voluntary agreement with car manufacturers to reduce CO(2) emissions in new vehicles, will be discussed. In addition, there will be some discussion on the UK CO(2) trading scheme that created the first market in the world in April 2001. Overall, the policy process is constantly informed by scientific research. In the case of climate change, much of this work is carried out under the auspices of international scientific panels.     

江苏省交通运输业能源消费碳排放及脱钩效应

通过自上而下的计算方法,测算了江苏省1995～2010年交通运输行业能源消费碳排放量和人均碳排放量,并结合行业自身发展特点,扩展了Kaya恒等式,运用LMDI分解法进行分解分析。同时,在上述基础上采用Tapio模型对江苏省交通碳排放与交通运输业经济发展的脱钩关系进行了探讨。研究发现:(1)江苏省交通碳排放量与人均碳排量均呈明显上升趋势,其中石油制品类能源消费碳排放表现突出;(2)正向驱动交通碳排放量增加的因素为经济产出、人口规模和产业结构,负向驱动因素为交通能源结构和交通能源强度。其中,拉动碳排放量增长的决定性因素是经济产出规模的扩大,而促使碳排放减少的主要因素是交通能源强度的降低,相对于正向驱动因素,负向驱动因素抑制交通碳排放增加作用有限;(3)交通碳排放量变化与运输业经济发展之间的脱钩状态以扩张负连接、扩张负脱钩和弱脱钩为主,脱钩关系总体呈先恶化后改善的趋势,但要完全实现两者的绝对脱钩,依然任重道远     

How might adaptation to climate change by smallholder farming communities contribute to climate change mitigation outcomes? A case study from Timor-Leste,Southeast Asia

The agriculture industry is significantly exposed to the impacts of climate change, and is also responsible for contributing extensive greenhouse gas emissions. As a way of responding to both adaptation and mitigation challenges within the industry, this article examines how community-based climate change adaptation initiatives might provide mitigation outcomes in the agriculture sector in Timor-Leste. Beginning with an exploration of nation-wide institutional responses to climate change, the study utilises interviews, field observations and document analysis to examine an extensive community-based adaptation program in two districts in Timor-Leste focused on increasing the resilience of the agriculture sector and the livelihoods of poor rural farmers. Analysis of this program reveals a largely synergistic relationship between adaptation measures focused on land and water management and agriculture and their corresponding greenhouse gas mitigation potential, including co-benefits such as soil/atmospheric carbon sequestration, reduced emissions, soil nitrification and reduced use of inorganic fertilisers. Community-based adaptation programs in the agriculture sector have a significant influence on mitigation outcomes, which is often overlooked in community-based programs. The adaptation program in Timor-Leste has provided useful insights into the inter-relationships between adaptation and mitigation at the community level, which could be further supported and scaled-up in other Southeast Asia countries and elsewhere.