Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) in marine mussels from French coasts: levels, patterns and temporal trends from 1981 to 2005

The levels and temporal trends of toxic polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) were determined in archived marine mussels collected between 1981 and 2005 from selected sites along French coasts. The geographical distribution and levels of PCDD/Fs generally reflect regional inputs of these contaminants: the highest concentrations were determined in samples from the Seine river estuary (English Channel) and Toulon area (Mediterranean coast); the lowest levels were determined in Corsica (Mediterranean Sea). PCDD/F isomeric composition showed a fairly homogeneous distribution pattern throughout the various sampling sites. This pattern, dominated by 2,3,7,8-TCDF and OCDD, can be considered as typical for the study species. However, on a more local scale, some differences in isomeric composition in mussels were identified in relation to local source characteristics. The time trend study showed a pronounced decrease in PCDD/F concentrations over the 24-year period at most sites, except Toulon on the Mediterranean Sea, where the decrease was not significant. This overall decrease probably reflects the general drop in PCDD/F emissions in Europe since 1980. However, high concentrations were determined in mussels collected in recent years (1999, 2001 and 2005) from the mouth of the Seine river. These concentrations are related to particular hydrological conditions, and intensive sediment dredging due to a new port construction at the mouth of the estuary. The results presented in this paper provide reference data on the contamination of shellfish by persistent organic pollutants in the marine environment.     

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in marine fish and blue mussels from southern Greenland

Levels of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) have not previously been reported in Greenland. In this study shorthorn sculpins (Myoxocephalus scorpius) were sampled at three locations in southern Greenland; Usuk (no population), Igaliko (population 40) and Qaqortoq (population 3200). Furthermore uvak (Gadus ogac), spotted wolffish (Anarhichas minor), starry ray (Raja radiata), and blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) were collected at Usuk. Pooled samples of fish liver and blue mussel were analysed for lower brominated PBDEs (BDE-47, BDE-99, BDE-100 and BDE-153). The highest PBDE levels were found in Qaqortoq followed by Igaliko and Usuk. The measured sum PBDE concentrations in shorthorn sculpin collected at Qaqortoq, Igaliko and Usuk, were 8.2, 3.1 and 2.1 all in units of microg kg(-1) wet weight. In female and male uvak collected at Usuk PBDE levels of 7.1 and 12.0 microg kg(-1) wet weight were measured, while the concentrations were 1.2 microg kg(-1) in spotted wolffish, 1.4 microg kg(-1) in starry ray and 0.11 microg kg(-1) in blue mussels from the same locality all measured on a wet weight basis. The highest concentrations were measured in uvak, a top-predator on fish indicating that PBDEs are biomagnifying. The level of tetra-hexa BDEs is 15-24 times lower than PCB levels measured in the same samples, except for shorthorn sculpin collected at Qaqortoq, where the level of PBDEs was 40 times lower than the level of PCBs. The high concentration of PCBs relative to PBDEs in shorthorn sculpin collected at Qaqortoq signifies a local emission of PCBs, which is higher than the local emission of PBDEs.     

Levels and trends of brominated flame retardants in the European environment

In this paper, we review those data which have recently become available for brominated flame retardants (particularly the brominated diphenyl ethers (BDEs) and hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD)) in samples from the European environment. Environmental compartments studied comprise the atmosphere, sediments and soils, sewage sludges, and a variety of biological samples and food chains. This is currently a very active research area, and we cite over 70 studies reported in the literature during 2003-04. Findings include that the input of BDEs (especially BDE209) to the Baltic Sea by atmospheric deposition now exceeds that of PCBs by a factor of almost 40 times. Sewage sludge samples from both industrial and background locations show concentrations of BDEs, HBCD and tetrabromobisphenol-A (TBBP-A) that are of a similar order, indicating that the major source is from diffuse leaching from products into wastewater streams from users, households and industries generally. Point-sources from industries using BFRs (e.g. the textile industry) also generate local hot-spots. Sediment core studies identified the presence of two of the three PBDE formulations. The penta-mix formulation was clearly present from the beginning of the 1970s, but the deca-mix only appeared in the late 1970s. BDE183, BDE209 and HBCD were detected in peregrine falcons from Sweden and other birds feeding on terrestrial food chains. BDEs are found widely distributed in fish, including those from high mountain lakes in Europe, as a consequence of long-range atmospheric transport and deposition. A temporal trend study in archived freeze-dried mussels from the Seine estuary, France, indicated an exponential increase in BDE concentrations during the period 1982-1993, which levelled off in 1999 and 2001 and then began to decline after 2002. HBCD was detected in liver and blubber samples from harbour seals and harbour porpoises from the Wadden and North Seas, though very few animals yielded positive values for TBBP-A. There are difficulties in comparing data on summation operatorBDE from studies in which different suites of BDE congeners have been determined, and we suggest a common suite which will allow the study of all three commercial PBDE formulations.     

Diamondback terrapins as indicator species of persistent organic pollutants: Using Barnegat Bay, New Jersey as a case study

The diamondback terrapin’s (Malaclemys terrapin) wide geographic distribution, long life span, occurrence in a variety of habitats within the saltmarsh ecosystem, predatory foraging behavior, and high site fidelity make it a useful indicator species for contaminant monitoring in estuarine ecosystems. In this study fat biopsies and plasma samples were collected from males and females from two sites within Barnegat Bay, New Jersey, as well as tissues from a gravid female and blue mussels (Mytilus edulis), which are terrapin prey. Samples were analyzed for persistent organic pollutants (POPs), including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), chlorinated pesticides, and methyl-triclosan. Terrapins from the northern site, Spizzle Creek, closest to influences from industrial areas, had higher POP concentrations for both tissues than terrapins from the less impacted Forsythe National Wildlife Refuge. Sex differences were observed with males having higher contaminant concentrations in fat and females in plasma. PCB patterns in terrapin fat and plasma were comparable to other wildlife. An atypical PBDE pattern was observed, dominated by PBDEs 153 and 100 instead of PBDEs 47 and 99, which has been documented in only a few other turtle species. The typical PBDE patterns measured in mussels, terrapin prey, suggests that the terrapin may efficiently biotransform or eliminate PBDE 47 and possibly PBDE 99. Plasma contaminant concentrations significantly and positively correlated with those in fat. This study addresses several aspects of using the terrapin as an indicator species for POP monitoring: site and sex differences, tissue sampling choices, maternal transfer, and biomagnification.     

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in South China maternal and fetal blood and breast milk

Twenty-one-paired human fetal and maternal serum and 27 breast milk samples at South China were analyzed for concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). Seven PBDE congeners (BDE-28, -47, -99, -100, -153, -154, and -183) were quantified using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). This is the first report to present the residue levels of PBDEs in human samples of China. The concentrations of total PBDEs ranged from 1.5 to 17 ng/g in the samples and were within the range reported in European samples for a similar population, but lower than human tissue levels in North America. BDE-47 and -153 were the dominant PBDE congeners in all samples and accounted for 60% of the total PBDEs. Further research is needed to determine the exposure route of PBDEs and their health effects.     

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in influents,suspended particulate matter,sediments, sewage treatment plant and effluents and biota from the Netherlands

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) have been determined in 133 samples of suspended particulate matter (SPM), sediments, sewage treatment plant (STP) influents and effluents, fish and mussels from various locations in The Netherlands, as a part of a large Dutch national study on estrogenic contaminants in the aquatic environment (LOES project). Some PBBs were also analysed but not found in any of the samples at detectable levels. PBDEs and PBBs were included in this study because indications of long term effects on the balance of endocrine systems were found in the literature. High concentrations of decaBDE (up to 4600 g/kg dry weight) were found in SPM from the Western Scheldt. These levels are possibly related to spillage during use of PBDEs in industries upstream the river Scheldt in Belgium. SPM was identified as an important carrier for higher brominated diphenyl ethers in the aquatic environment. DecaBDE was not found at detectable levels in flounder, bream and mussels. The bioaccumulation of decaBDE in these fish and shellfish samples is apparently limited. Lower brominated PBDE congeners (tetra/penta) were also found in the Western Scheldt as well as in the Rhine delta and the river Meuse, but in much lower concentrations than the decaBDE. In contrast with decaBDE, the tetra and pentaBDEs were found in biota. It was concluded that at least a small part of the PBDE can pass STPs.     

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in human milk from Australia

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are flame retardants added to a multitude of products to reduce flammability. PBDEs have been widely detected and quantified in biota and humans in many industrialised countries from the Northern Hemisphere. However data concerning the levels of these compounds in the Australian population and environment remain limited. The objectives of this study were to determine PBDE concentrations and congener profiles in Australian human milk and compare this to concentrations found in other countries. Pooled human milk samples obtained from mothers residing in 12 regions of Australia were analysed by HRGC/HRMS for 18 PBDE congeners. In total, 157 human milk samples collected in 2002 and 2003 were divided into 17 regional pools. PBDEs were detected in all pools of human milk from Australia. The mean+/-standard deviation and median summation operatorPBDE concentrations were 11.1+/-3.2 and 11.0 ng g(-1) lipid, respectively with a range of 6.1-18.7 ng g(-1) lipid. The congener profile was dominated by BDE-47 followed by BDE-99, -100, -153, -154 and -183. Regional differences were evaluated, but no trends were observed. The data suggest regional differences are likely to be small if they exist at all. The concentrations of PBDEs found in Australian human milk were lower than those reported from North America but higher than those reported from Europe and Asia. Our results suggest that the exposure pathways which contribute to the PBDE body burden in the Australian population require a better understanding in order to determine future policy regarding their use and disposal.     

Elimination of 10 polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) congeners and selected polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) from the freshwater mussel, Elliptio complanata

Mussel biomonitors are widely used as screening tools for polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in marine and aquatic environments. This study determined elimination rate coefficients (k(tot)) for eight PBDE and five PCB congeners in the freshwater mussel, Elliptio complanata, over a 120d depuration period. Elimination of BDE 15, 28, 47, 75 and 100 was similar to PCBs of equivalent hydrophobicity and negatively related to chemical K(OW). Rapid elimination of BDE 190 and an inferred rapid elimination of BDE 183 indicate mussels are capable of biotransformation of certain highly brominated PBDEs. Time to 90% steady state ranged from 48 to 66d for di- and tribromoDE congeners and from 91 to >250d for tetra- to hexabromoDE congeners. Given the long time periods required for steady state, mussel accumulated PBDE residues should be interpreted in the context of calibrated bioaccumulation models.     

Spatial distribution and accumulation of brominated flame retardants, polychlorinated biphenyls and organochlorine pesticides in blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) from coastal waters of Korea

Blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) from 20 locations along the coastal waters of Korea were analyzed to elucidate the characteristic distribution and contamination status of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine pesticides. To our knowledge, this is the first study to report on the contamination status of HBCDs from Korea. PBDEs and HBCDs were found in mussels at levels ranging from 6.6 to 440 and from 6.0 to 500 ng/g lipid wt., respectively. Concentrations of PBDEs in mussels from Korea were higher or comparable to available data in mussels from other countries. Among the organochlorine compounds (OCs) analyzed, levels of PCBs and DDTs were the highest followed by CHLs, HCHs and hexachlorobenzene. For all the compounds, higher concentrations were found in mussels from southeastern coast of Korea. The present study shows the importance of mussels as bioindicators for monitoring contaminants in coastal waters.     

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in sediments of the Daliao River Estuary, China: levels, distribution and their influencing factors

The concentrations, compositional profiles, possible sources of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in sediments of the Daliao River Estuary as well as the factors influencing the distribution of PBDEs were investigated. The total concentrations of PBDEs ranged from 0.13 to 1.98 ng g⁻¹ d.w. BDE209 was the dominating congener in all sediment samples, indicating the pollution of PBDEs in the Daliao River Estuary mainly came from the use of deca-BDE commercial mixtures. The intrusion of sea waters promoted the deposition of the colloid-associated PBDEs in the estuary. There were significantly negative correlations between PBDE concentration in sediment with pH value and salinity in the bottom water. The higher river flow in the flood season (summer) obviously accelerated the transport of PBDEs, and thereby increased the risk of PBDE contamination to the deep ocean. Moreover, a positive correlation between TOC and PBDE distributions was observed, suggesting that TOC regulated the distributions of PBDEs in sediments of Daliao River Estuary.     

The occurrence of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in river and coastal biota from Portugal

Throughout this work PBDEs level determination in biota was developed for the first time in Portugal. The data obtained was important to provide a global perspective of Portugal contamination by PBDEs and allows the comparison with studies made in other countries. Environmental levels of fourteen polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were analysed in a number of biota samples (Barbus sp. and Mytilus galloprovincialis) taken over a large geographic range covering five rivers and coastal areas of Portugal. Tetrabromodiphenyl ether (BDE 47) was found in almost all samples ranging from not detected (nd) to 30ngg(-1) dry weight (dw). BDE 47 concentration is correlated with mussels weight indicating the bioaccumulation of this compound. Pentabromodiphenyl ethers (BDE 99 and BDE 100) were detected in several samples, but in lower concentrations.     

Geographical distribution of non-PBDE-brominated flame retardants in mussels from Asian coastal waters

Hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs), 1,2-bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy) ethane (BTBPE), and decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE) used as alternatives for polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are also persistent in the environment as PBDEs. Limited information on these non-PBDE brominated flame retardants (BFRs) is available; in particular, there are only few publications on environmental pollution by these contaminants in the coastal waters of Asia. In this regard, we investigated the contamination status of HBCDs, BTBPE, and DBDPE in the coastal waters of Asia using mussels as a bioindicator. Concentrations of HBCDs, BTBPE, and DBDPE were determined in green (Perna viridis) and blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) collected from the coastal areas in Cambodia, China (mainland), SAR China (Hong Kong), India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Vietnam on 2003-2008. BTBPE and DBDPE were analyzed using GC-MS, whereas HBCDs were determined by LC-MS/MS. HBCDs, BTBPE, and DBDPE were found in mussels at levels ranging from <0.01 to 1,400, <0.1 to 13, and <0.3 to 22?ng/g lipid wt, respectively. Among the three HBCD diastereoisomers, α-HBCD was the dominant isomer followed by γ- and β-HBCDs. Concentrations of HBCDs and DBDPE in mussels from Japan and Korea were higher compared to those from the other Asian countries, indicating extensive usage of these non-PBDE BFRs in Japan and Korea. Higher levels of HBCDs and DBDPE than PBDEs were detected in some mussel samples from Japan. The results suggest that environmental pollution by non-PBDE BFRs, especially HBCDs in Japan, is ubiquitous. This study provides baseline information on the contamination status of these non-PBDE BFRs in the coastal waters of Asia.     

PCBs, PCNs and PBDEs in sediments and mussels from Qingdao coastal sea in the frame of current circulations and influence of sewage sludge

Influence of current circulation and sewage sludge on spatial distributions of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polychlorinated naphthalenes (PCNs), and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in sediments and mussels from the Qingdao coastal sea were investigated. Total concentrations of PCBs, PCNs and PBDEs in sediments ranged 6.5-32.9, 0.2-1.2, and 0.1-5.5 ngg(-1) dry wt, respectively. The maximum concentrations were all found near the Haibo River mouth, affected by sewage sludge input from the river. Under the current system in Jiaozhou Bay the organic pollutants were subject to deposit on the east side of the bay and trapped inside the bay. Sewage sludge was an important source of PCBs, PCNs and PBDEs in the bay and exponentially magnified the enrichment of PCBs. On the other hand, the congener profiles of PCBs in sediments outside the bay may signify an atmospheric source of PCBs. Total Concentrations of PCBs, PCNs and PBDEs in mussels were 61.4-88.6, 9.0, and 13.8 ngg(-1)lipid, respectively. Mussels enriched significantly PCBs, PCNs and PBDEs relative to the sediments. The total toxicity equivalent quantities (TEQs) of PCNs in mussels were generally lower than that of PCBs. The fluxes of the total PCBs and their TEQs have been decreased steadily since 1950s. The lower chlorinated/brominated congeners of PCNs and PBDEs may exhibit a greater tendency due to less lipophilic and thus a greater probability of being affected by the current circulation in the bay.     

Levels and bioaccumulation of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in fishes from the Pearl River estuary and Daya Bay, South China

Fifty fish samples were collected from the Pearl River estuary (PRE) and Daya Bay, South China and were analyzed for DDTs, HCHs, chlordanes and polybrominated biphenyl ethers (PBDEs). Except the high concentrations of DDT observed in fishes, the concentrations of HCHs, chlordanes and PBDEs were low when compared to other regions. BDE-47 was the predominant PBDE congener and the BDE-209 concentrations were relatively low, despite its high concentration in surface sediments. The absence of significant increase of DDT, HCH, chlordane and PBDE concentrations towards higher delta15N values, as well as the lack of a significant correlation (p<0.1) between log concentrations (lipid normalized) and delta15N, may indicate a weak biomagnification of these chemicals in the food webs. Good agreement was observed between their concentrations and lipid contents of the organisms. Bioconcentration was suggested to be responsible for the accumulation of OCPs and PBDEs in the lower trophic organisms in the studied subtropical waters.     

Concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in blood serum from New Zealand

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were measured in samples of human blood serum taken from 23 donors in Wellington, New Zealand. Concentrations expressed as the sum of congeners 47, 99, 100, 153, 154, and 183 (SigmaPBDE) were - at an average of 7.17 ng SigmaPBDE g (lipid)(-1) - within the range reported for human tissues in Europe, but lower than in Australia and North America. The most likely source of this contamination is considered to be the release of PBDEs from imported consumer goods. The congener pattern observed is in line with that reported for human tissues outside North America, but shows a lower contribution of PBDE 47 to SigmaPBDE than observed in North Americans. No significant (p>0.1) differences between concentrations in males and females were detected, and no relationship between donor age and SigmaPBDE concentration was observed. One donor displayed concentrations that were significantly elevated (i.e. > average +2 standard deviations) above those in others in this study.     

Distribution of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in breast milk,cord blood and placentas: a systematic review

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) have been extensively used as flame retardants in consumer products. PBDEs rapidly bioaccumulate in the environment, food, wild animals and humans. In this review, we investigated the harmful effects of PBDEs on humans, especially in early life, and summarised the levels of PBDEs in human biological samples (breast milk, cord blood and placentas). In addition, we described the spatiotemporal distribution of PBDEs in this review. PBDE levels in breast milk, cord blood and placentas were generally higher in North America than in other regions, such as Asia, Europe, Oceania and Africa. However, high levels of PBDEs in human biological samples were detected at e-waste recycling sites in South China, East China and South Korea. This finding suggests that newborns living in e-waste regions are exposed to high levels of PBDEs during prenatal and postnatal periods. The time trends of PBDE concentration differed according to the region. Few studies have investigated PBDE levels in humans from 1967 to 2000, but they increased rapidly after 2000. PBDE concentration peaked at approximately 2006 globally. Compared with other PBDE congeners, BDE-47, BDE-153 and BDE-209 were the major components, but the detection rate of BDE-209 was lower than those of others. Future studies should focus on determining the BDE-209 concentration, which requires the implementation of different analytical approaches. Additionally, the levels of PBDEs in human samples and the environment should be monitored, especially in e-waste recycling regions.

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Graphical abstract The figures described the spatial distribution of the lowest (Fig. a1) and highest concentration of ∑PBDE (Fig. a2) in different countries by 2006 and described the spatial distribution of the lowest (Fig. b1) and highest concentration of ∑PBDE (Fig. b2) in different countries from 2007 to 2015. All the figures indicated that the levels of PBDEs in North America were substantially higher than those in many regions of Europe, Asia, Oceania, or Africa. Comparing Fig. a1–b1 or Fig. a2–b2, increasing trends were observed in some countries, especially in some regions in China, Korea and Canada.

     

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in breast milk from the Pacific Northwest

Breast milk samples from 40 first-time mothers from the Pacific Northwest of the US and Canada were analyzed for polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Total PBDEs (summation operator PBDEs), calculated by summing values for the 12 PBDEs congeners analyzed, ranged from 6 to 321 ppb (lipid weight) (mean=96 ppb; median=50 ppb). In approximately 40% of the women (15/40), summation operator PBDEs>100 ppb lw in their milk, and four samples had levels >250 ppb lw. PBDE 47 was the dominant congener in most samples, whereas PBDE 153 was predominant in a few (3/40). summation operator PCBs were calculated by summing values for the 82 PCB congeners analyzed, and ranged from 49 to 415 ppb (lipid weight) (mean=147 ppb; median=126 ppb). approximately 30% of the mothers (13/40) have summation operator PBDEs> summation operator PCBs in their milk samples, and approximately 65% (25/40) have BDE 47>PCB 153 in breast milk samples, with BDE 47 averaging 3-fold greater levels than PCB 153. Clearly, the lower brominated PBDEs are surpassing PCBs as a major environmental concern in North America, and are likely affecting significant portions of the populations in these regions. PBDEs have become a major persistent organic pollutant. However, there are no positive correlations between levels of summation operator PBDEs and summation operator PCBs, or between levels of PBDE 47 and PCB 153, suggesting there may be some differences in exposure pathways for PBDEs and PCBs in humans.     

Levels and distributions of polybrominated diphenyl ethers,hexabromocyclododecane, and tetrabromobisphenol A in sediments from Taihu Lake,China

The concentrations and distribution of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD), and tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) were investigated in 28 sediment samples collected from Taihu Lake, Eastern China. The results showed that all three classes of compounds were detected in 28 sediment samples but that PBDEs were the main contaminants in the study area. The total PBDE concentrations ranged from 3.77 to 347 ng/g dry weight (dw) with a mean value of 72.8 ng/g dw, whereas the concentrations ranged from 0.168 to 2.66 and from 0.012 to 1.30 ng/g dw for HBCD and TBBPA, respectively. In all of the sediment samples, BDE-209 was the predominant congener, accounting for 95.9 to 98.6 % of the total PBDEs, which indicated that commercial mixtures of deca-BDEs were the main sources of PBDE contamination. Higher concentrations of PBDEs were found in samples collected from Meiliang Bay and Gonghu Bay near the inflow river, which suggested that inflow runoff might play an important role in the PBDE levels in Taihu Lake sediments.     

Geographical distribution and accumulation features of PBDEs in human breast milk from Indonesia

The present study reports concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and organochlorines (OCs) in human breast milk from Indonesia covering urban, suburban and rural areas. PBDEs were detected in all the samples of the present study with total concentrations ranging from 0.49 to 13 ng/g lipid wt. Geographical distribution showed that concentrations of PBDEs were relatively uniform (p>0.05) and the levels were in the same order as those in Japan and some European countries, but were one or two order lower than North America. When compared to OCs, the level of total PBDEs was lower. The congener pattern was in accordance with other studies on human matrices, in which BDE-47 was the most abundant congener. Variations of PBDE congeners in human breast milk were further discussed to elucidate the potential exposure source(s) and pathways.     

Levels and congener specific profiles of PBDEs in human breast milk from China: implication on exposure sources and pathways

Fourteen PBDE congeners from mono- to deca-BDE were determined in breast milk of primiparous mothers from two locations in East China, i.e. Nanjing (n=9), an urban area, and Zhoushan (n=10), a semi rural coastal area. PBDEs were detected in all the human breast milk samples of the present study, indicating that general population in these two locations are widely exposed to these pollutants. Relatively higher concentrations of PBDEs were found in the milk of mothers from Nanjing than Zhoushan, suggesting the existence of significant sources of PBDEs in urban areas. PBDE levels in the present study were similar to those in European countries, but one or two orders of magnitude lower than in North America. Except for BDE-3, all congeners from di- to deca-BDE were detected in the samples of the present study. BDE-209, a congener considered to have less bioavailability, was detected in about 50% of the samples at concentrations higher than that of other congeners. Other higher brominated congeners, such as BDE-153, -197 and -207, were also prominent in the present study, which is different from the pattern generally observed in previous studies on human milk as well as biota samples. These results may indicate that the inhabitants of Nanjing and Zhoushan are exposed to location specific sources of PBDEs.