Life satisfaction approach to farmers’ compensation for land acquisition: empirical study from the suburbs of Wuhan City

Farmers’ compensation for land acquisition is not only critical to increasing their income and to playing a pivotal role in maintaining rural stability, but also to the promotion of sustainable land use. Based on analysis of Chinese land acquisition policy under the Land Management Law, which provides principles or guidelines for determining compensation according to agricultural land use in regard to farmers’ previous quality of life, the Life Satisfaction Approach is introduced in this article to evaluate farmers’ compensation for land acquisition. Employing data from a questionnaire survey on 346 farming households in Wuhan Suburbs, this article examined the influence of farmland on farmers’ life satisfaction and evaluated the level of compensation for land acquisition. Results show that farmland has a significantly positive impact on life satisfaction, which fell by 0.033 on a five-point scale following a reduction farmland by of 1 mu. Respondents were willing to accept approximately RMB 3066.44 annual household income for the loss of 1 mu farmland; the level of compensation after discounting by 6.2% is RMB 750,000 per hectare. It was found in a further comparative study that the level of farmers’ compensation for land acquisition is decidedly low, and it was also shown that their compensation standards, as well as the actual compensation, could be substantially improved by expanding economic compensation to non-economic compensation to embody farmland multifunction in terms of production and non-production against farmers’ previous quality of life. This article proposes a compensation model that enriches the content of land acquisition compensation, extends the current literature on measuring compensation, and provides economic theory bases for increasing compensation standards and improving policies related to land acquisition. We consider that if this compensation model is applied, it could raise the cost of land acquisition and improve usage of land, reduce the speed of rural–urban land conversion, and improve farmers’ well-being.     

Ecological and economic impacts of different irrigation and fertilization practices: case study of a watershed in the southern Iran

Best management practices, such as conservation tillage, the optimum level of irrigation, fertilization, are frequently used to reduce non-point source pollution from agricultural land and improve water quality. In this study, we used the soil and water assessment tool to model the impacts of different irrigation (adjusted to crop need), cropping and fertilization practices on total nitrogen loss. The economic impacts of these practices on crop net farm income were also evaluated. For this purpose, the model was calibrated through comparing model outputs with observations to ensure reliable hydrologic, crop yield and nitrate leaching simulations. The results showed that by reducing water or fertilizer or combination of both, we can reduce nitrate leaching. For wheat and corn, the best scenario was S1n1 (combination between reduction by 10 % of water and nitrogen fertilizer application, simultaneously) and S2n3 (combination of 20 and 30 % reduction in water and fertilizer application), respectively. These scenarios are both ecologically and economically desirable. Also, decreasing nitrogen fertilization by 50 % for corn would decrease the nitrate pollution from 101.1 to 32.3 kg N ha^?1; therefore, this strategy is ecologically desirable but economically unsound. So, there are opportunities for environmental decision makers to encourage farmers to implement these strategies. Also, since the nitrogen leaching cannot decrease without a reduction in net farm income for crops such as corn; hence, the losses of farmers should be compensated.     

邻里效应与农技推广对农户稻虾共养技术采纳的影响分析——互补效应与替代效应

稻虾共养生态农业技术可以带来良好的经济、生态和社会效应,但由于有效技术来源不足、较高的技术与经济风险给农户采纳带来多重约束。以稻虾共养技术为例,利用湖北省与江苏省605份农户调研数据,通过理论与实证分析了邻里效应与农技推广对农户稻虾共养技术采纳的影响及二者的互补与替代效应。研究发现:(1)邻里观察性学习、交流感受均显著正向促进农户稻虾共养技术采纳。(2)通过农资企业的经营性农技推广显著正向影响农户稻虾共养技术采纳。(3)对农户稻虾共养技术采纳的影响上,观察性学习、社会规范均与农技推广存在部分替代效应,邻里农户交流感受与农技推广存在部分替代与互补效应。基于上述研究结论,该文认为应该有效结合邻里效应与农技推广的互补与替代效应,提高各农技推广主体的运行效率和实际影响力,进而提高农户的采纳规范性和效率。     

Environmental externalities in relation to agricultural sector in Thailand with trade-linked analysis

Thailand plays an important role in the international trade of food and agricultural products, which is in alignment with its national strategy of serving as the “kitchen of the world.” When looking at its agricultural promotion and export policies, the country only counts the value gains from exports while neglecting environmental externalities related to plantation practices. The purpose of this study was to perform a trade-off analysis between consumptive water, land, and fertilizer use together with the economic values of major crops for export and consumption in the country. The results show that to gain income from agricultural exports, the country has exploited various natural resources. The area used to harvest rice, sugarcane, cassava, and rubber adds up to approximately 15.3 million ha: 7.2 million ha of which is for domestic consumption and 8.1 ha for export. To produce Thailand’s agricultural exports, total water use is estimated to be 49.8–67.5 billion m³ per year (61–65 %), while the amount used to produce crops for domestic consumption is 26.5–43.7 billion m³ per year (35–39 %). Meanwhile, 1,056–1,826 thousand tons (54 %) of fertilizer was used on crops for domestic consumption, and 1,222–1,370 thousand tons (46 %) of fertilizer was used on export crops. The best crop choice for export in terms of its export value, land use, fertilizer use, and water consumption is rubber. The worst crop choices for export are rice and cassava. More sustainable agricultural practices are needed to effect improvements such as increased yields and reduced fertilizer and water use.     

Variability in crop yields associated with climate anomalies in China over the past three decades

We used simple and explicit methods, as well as improved datasets for climate, crop phenology and yields, to address the association between variability in crop yields and climate anomalies in China from 1980 to 2008. We identified the most favourable and unfavourable climate conditions and the optimum temperatures for crop productivity in different regions of China. We found that the simultaneous occurrence of high temperatures, low precipitation and high solar radiation was unfavourable for wheat, maize and soybean productivity in large portions of northern, northwestern and northeastern China; this was because of droughts induced by warming or an increase in solar radiation. These climate anomalies could cause yield losses of up to 50 % for wheat, maize and soybeans in the arid and semi-arid regions of China. High precipitation and low solar radiation were unfavourable for crop productivity throughout southeastern China and could cause yield losses of approximately 20 % for rice and 50 % for wheat and maize. High temperatures were unfavourable for rice productivity in southwestern China because they induced heat stress, which could cause rice yield losses of approximately 20 %. In contrast, high temperatures and low precipitation were favourable for rice productivity in northeastern and eastern China. We found that the optimum temperatures for high yields were crop specific and had an explicit spatial pattern. These findings improve our understanding of the impacts of extreme climate events on agricultural production in different regions of China.     

Invasion of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Mimosa pigra</Emphasis> on the cultivated Mekong River floodplains near Kratie,Cambodia: farmers’ coping strategies,perceptions, and outlooks

Mimosa pigra, an alien woody weed, invaded the Mekong River Basin since ~1970 and now covers vast floodplain areas in virtual monocultures. The prickly plants produce abundant seeds which are dispersed annually by the floods. Mimosa thus represents a burden to farming communities in Cambodia where agricultural capacities are weak. To obtain information on infestations as well as farmers’ management practices and perceptions, 81 farmers were interviewed on their fields (using questionnaires) in affected areas near Kratie municipality. Data on infestations were collected at landscape and field levels. Furthermore, villagers’ groups and key informants were interviewed (open questions). Infestations covered ~30 % of the land near fields. On average, farmers spent 11 days per hectare annually clearing mimosa. The weed represented a major cost, but other issues (animal pests, water shortages, lack of resources) were equally important; these may be connected with mimosa invasion. Farmers mostly expressed support for ideas to combat surrounding infestations, but support depended on experiences and assets at stake. Most were unconvinced that mimosa could be eliminated from the study site. Conceivable benefits of mimosa were regarded as insignificant. Given the currently few realistic options for significantly improving management, further research is suggested within adaptive management frameworks.     

绿色防控技术对稻农经济收益的影响及其作用机制

中国农业正在向绿色发展转变,绿色防控技术在确保粮食安全和保护生态环境方面发挥着重要作用。文章基于四川省623户水稻种植户的微观调查数据,采用倾向得分匹配法消除了样本选择性偏差,分析了绿色防控技术对农户经济收益的影响及其作用机制,并对研究结果进行了一系列的稳健性检验。研究结果表明:①绿色防控技术的采纳能够显著改善稻农的经济收益。与未采纳绿色防控技术的状态相比,采纳绿色防控技术能够使农户每亩水稻的毛收入增加104.96%,每亩水稻的净利润增加40.45%。②从作用机制上看,采纳绿色防控技术使稻农获得了更高的市场溢价,同时有利于激励稻农扩大水稻种植规模,并增加对农地的投入,包括提高有机肥和种子的投入费用。③尽管采纳绿色防控技术带来了一定的消极影响,即提高了病虫害损失率,导致一定程度的减产,但整体而言,采纳绿色防控技术所带来的价格溢价弥补了因病虫害引致的产量损失,改善了稻农的经济收益。④绿色防控技术对稻农经济收益的影响会由于教育水平的差异以及互联网的应用而存在明显的异质性。最后,研究从加大农村人力资本投入、完善农村互联网设施、强化绿色防控技术政策支持以及加强对农用化学投入品的监管等四个方面提出对策建议。     

Improvement in irrigation water use efficiency: a strategy for climate change adaptation and sustainable development of Vietnamese tea production

Irrigation is indispensable to overcome insufficient rainfall and to achieve a stabilized yield for tea production. As the severe scarcity of water resources because of climate change, water conservation through efficient irrigation has turned into a vital strategy for tea sector in solving this rising challenge. This paper analyzes irrigation water use efficiency of small-scale tea farms in Vietnam and identifies its determinants applying stochastic frontier analysis. Results showed that under decreasing returns to scale, the mean irrigation water use efficiency was 42.19 %, indicating the existence of substantial water waste. If farmers become more efficient in using water, saving 57.81 % of irrigation water is possible unaccompanied by reducing the observed output. The factors affecting tea farms’ irrigation water use efficiency were investigated by Tobit model. Gender, water shortage awareness, soil and water conservation practice, off-farm income share, extension services access and well water utilization showed significant influence on the efficiency of irrigation water. The study’ results provide insights to policymakers in implementing better water resource management amid climate change.     

Increasing concentrations of aerosols offset the benefits of climate warming on rice yields during 1980–2008 in Jiangsu Province, China

The impacts of climate change on crop yield have increasingly been of concern. In this study, we investigated the impacts of trends in sunshine duration (S) and maximum temperature (T _max) on rice yields in Jiangsu Province at both the provincial and county level during the period from 1980 to 2008. The results showed that although S and T _max both were positively correlated with rice yields, the combined impacts of the decreasing trend of S (0.37 h/decade) and the increasing trend of T _max (0.34 °C/decade) in August caused a reduction of 0.16 t ha^?1 in rice yields (approximately 1.8 %) in Jiangsu Province, and the trend of S had played a dominant role in the yield losses. Further analyses suggest that the increasing concentration of aerosols from rapid economic development in Jiangsu Province has caused a significant solar dimming at least since 1960, making mitigations and adaptation measurements on regional haze impact imperative. Our study provides a prototype for detecting negative feedback on agricultural production caused by intensified anthropogenic activities that aim only to create rapid economic development.     

Climate trends and impacts on crop production in the Koshi River basin of Nepal

Understanding crop responses to climate is essential to cope with anticipated changes in temperature and precipitation. We investigated the climate–crop yield relationship and the impact of historical climate on yields of rice, maize and wheat in the Koshi basin of Nepal. The results show significant impact of growing season temperature and precipitation on crop production in the region. Rice, maize and wheat cultivated at altitudes below 1,100, 1,350 and 1,700 m amsl (above mean sea level), respectively, suffer from stress due to higher temperatures particularly during flowering and yield formation stages. Responses of crop yields to a unitary increment in growing season mean temperature vary from ?6 to 16 %, ?4 to 11 % and ?12 to 3 % for rice, maize and wheat, respectively, depending on the location and elevation in the basin. In most parts of the basin, we observe warming trends in growing season mean temperatures of rice, maize and wheat over the last few decades with clear evidence of negative impacts on yields. However, at some high-elevation areas, positive impacts of warming are also observed on rice and maize yields. If the observed trends in temperature continue in future, the impact is likely to be mostly negative on crop production in the basin. However, crop production may gain from the warming at relatively higher altitudes provided other conditions, e.g., water availability, soil fertility, are favorable.     

Analysis of observed and perceived climate change and variability in Arsi Negele District,Ethiopia

Climate change and variability has been detected in Ethiopia. Smallholder and subsistence farmers, pastoralists and forest-dependent households are the most hit by climate-related hazards. They have to have perception of climate change in order to respond it through making coping and/or adaptation strategies. Local perceptions and coping strategies provide a crucial foundation for community-based climate change adaptation measures. This study was specifically designed to (1) assess households’ perception and knowledge in climate change and/or variability, and (2) establish the observed changes in climate parameters with community perceptions and climate anomalies. Purposive stratified random sampling method has been used to gather information from 355 sample households for individual interviews supplemented by group discussion and key informants interviews. The analysis of observed and satellite climate data for the study district showed that mean maximum and minimum temperature for the period 1983–2014 has increased by 0.047 and 0.028 °C/year, respectively. However, the total rainfall has declined by 10.16 mm per annum. Seasonally, the rainfall has declined by 2.198, 4.541, 1.814 and 1.608 mm per annum for Ethiopian summer, spring, autumn and winter seasons, respectively. Similarly, the mean maximum temperature of the study area had showed an increment of 0.035, 0.049, 0.044 and 0.065 °C per year for spring, winter, autumn and summer seasons, respectively. The observed climate variation has been confirmed by people’s perception. Considering what had been the existed situations before 30 years ago as normal, an increase in temperature, an increase in drought frequency, a decrease in total rainfall, erratic nature of its distribution and the tardiness of its onset had been perceived by 88, 70, 97, 80 and 94% of the respondents, respectively, at current time—2015. Deforestation as a casual factor of climate change and variability had been perceived by 99.7% of the respondents. This had been also confirmed by scientific studies as it emits carbon dioxide and is the main driver of climate change and variability. Indigenous knowledge, including climate predictions, has been used by people to implement their day-to-day agricultural activities. Therefore, science should be integrated with the perception and indigenous knowledge of people to come up with concrete solution for climate change and variability impacts on human livelihoods.     

Distribution of health costs of pesticide use by household economy

We observed skewed distribution across household of benefits of pesticide use in vegetable farming in Nepal. However, economic burden or harm of pesticide use and exposure by household economy is poorly studied. It is hypothesized that exaggerated and incompetent pesticide use is likely to affect human health that may lead to decline in human productivity, and economic loss––that may further marginalize farmers. Thus, a study was conducted in the Ansi khola watershed of Kavrepalanchowk District of central Nepal. The primary aim of the study was to value risks of pesticide use and to estimate health costs of exposure by household category. We grouped household into “large-scale” who owns more than 1 ha of agricultural land, “small-scale” having <0.5 ha and “medium-scale” in between >0.5 and <1 ha. Data were collected through (1) an initial household survey conducted from May to June 2008, (2) monthly visit surveys accomplished from June to November 2008 and (3) a final household survey conducted during November to December 2009. The cost of pesticide use and exposure was highest for medium-scale household; however, the economic burden in relation to incomes was the highest for small-scale household. On the basis of area under vegetables, small-scale household incurred 23 % higher economic burdens compared to the large-scale household. Overall, the cost of pesticide use and exposure amounted 15 % of agricultural income and/or 5 % of gross household income. For small-scale households, the cost was equivalent to 18 % of agricultural income and 6 % of gross income. Small-scale households are not only deprived from benefits of agriculture intensification, but also incurred highest burden of pesticide use.     

An economic assessment of drought effects on three grassland systems in Switzerland

This paper analyzes the economic impacts of summer drought on Swiss grassland production. We combine field trial data from drought experiments in three different grasslands in Switzerland with site-specific information on economic costs and benefits. The analysis focuses on the economic implications of drought effects on grassland yields as well as grassland composition. In agreement with earlier studies, we found rather heterogeneous yield effects of drought on Swiss grassland systems, with significantly reduced yields as a response to drought at the lowland and sub-alpine sites, but increased yields at the wetter pre-alpine site. Relative yield losses were highest at the sub-alpine site (with annual yield losses of up to 37 %). However, because income from grassland production at extensive sites relies to a large extent on ecological direct payments, even large yield losses had only limited implications in terms of relative profit reductions. In contrast, negative drought impacts at the most productive, intensively managed lowland site were dominant, with average annual drought-induced profit margin reductions of about 28 %. This is furthermore emphasized if analyzing the farm level perspective of drought impacts. Combining site-specific effects at the farm level, we found that in particular farms with high shares of lowland grassland sites suffer from summer droughts in terms of farm-level fodder production and profit margins. Moreover, our results showed that the higher competitiveness of weeds (broad-leaved dock) under drought conditions will require increasing attention on weed control measures in future grassland production systems. Taking into account that the risk of drought occurrence is expected to increase in the coming years, additional instruments to cope with drought risks in fodder production and finally farmers’ income have to be developed.     

Sustainable cropping pattern in North Iran: application of fuzzy goal programming

Due to the important role that the application of mathematical programming models have in determining optimal cropping patterns, this research presents a sustainable cropping pattern that considers selected economic, environmental, and social goals together. Using a random sampling method, a sample size of 168 farmers was selected in the Sari County, Iran. Our results showed that economic, self-sufficiency, environmental, and social goals have a distinctly different impact on cropping pattern performance. Compared to the current cropping pattern, the gross margins for economic and social goals increased by nearly 11 and 2 %, respectively, and the gross margins for self-sufficiency and environmental goals decreased by nearly 2 and 36 %. Interestingly, it has been found that the performance of the current cropping pattern has an average positive impact of 6 % if economic, self-sufficiency, environmental, and social (employment) goals are realized simultaneously.     

青虾池塘养殖环境效率分析

为以环境友好型效率标准合理引导青虾池塘养殖生产活动，将淡水养殖对环境的影响纳入效率研究的范畴，以青虾池塘养殖为例，分别运用SBM模型和CCR模型，计算了青虾池塘养殖的环境效率和经济效率，以及各投入要素的使用情况。并运用相关分析、配对样本T检验和方差齐次性检验等技术进行比较研究。研究结果表明：当前我国青虾池塘养殖的环境效率（考虑环境因素的经济效率）仅为0476 9，而传统的经济效率（不考虑环境因素的经济效率）为0696 7，前者显著低于后者，且波动性更强。所有的要素投入都存在过量现象。除电费、虾苗和药物投入外，其他各项投入在环境效率中的过量程度均大于经济效率；具有固定成本性质的投入品，如劳动力投入和机械投入的过量程度更为严重；利用率过低致使肥料投入过量程度高于饲料投入。农户资源配置过程中忽视环境成本是根本原因，应引起高度重视     

Climate change impacts on a pine stand in Central Siberia

The objective of this paper is to analyse the impacts of climate change on a pine forest stand in Central Siberia (Zotino) to assess benefits and risks for such forests in the future. We use the regional statistical climate model STARS to develop a set of climate change scenarios assuming a temperature increase by mid-century of 1, 2, 3 and 4 K. The process-based forest growth model 4C is applied to a 200-year-old pine forest to analyse impacts on carbon and water balance as well as the risk of fire under these climate change scenarios. The climate scenarios indicate precipitation increases mainly during winter and decreases during summer with increasing temperature trend. They cause rising forest productivity up to about 20 % in spite of increasing respiration losses. At the same time, the water-use efficiency increases slightly from 2.0 g C l^?1 H₂O under current climate to 2.1 g C l^?1 H₂O under 4 K scenario indicating that higher water losses from increasing evapotranspiration do not appear to lead to water limitations for the productivity at this site. The simulated actual evaporation increases by up to 32 %, but the climatic water balance decreases by up to 20 % with increasing temperature trend. In contrast, the risk of fire indicated by the Nesterov index clearly increases. Our analysis confirms increasing productivity of the boreal pine stand but also highlights increasing drought stress and risks from abiotic disturbances which could cancel out productivity gains.     

Factors influencing farmers’ decisions on nitrogen fertilizer application in the Liangzihu Lake basin,Central China

Overuse of nitrogen (N) fertilizers in agriculture activities has caused severe water pollution in China. The lack of data at producer level hampers decision makers in the development and implementation of efficient policies to curb excessive N-fertilizer use. In a survey of 300 farm households in the Liangzihu Lake basin, we identified factors associated with farmers’ decisions on N-fertilizer use and application rate. Household survey and multiple linear regression models indicate that the average application rate in the study region is 229 kg N ha^?1, which exceeds the recommended rate for maximum profit for cereal crops (maize, wheat, and rice) in China of 150–180 kg N ha^?1. High N-application rates are associated with low farmland productivity (coefficient = ?15.66, p = 0.02), a high share of off-farm income (coefficient = 27.14, p = 0.003), and a low education level of the household head (coefficient = ?10.83, p = 0.039). Neither physical infrastructure nor access to input markets appears to be related to N-application rates. It may be concluded that excessive use of N in agriculture of Central China is mainly a problem of insufficient awareness and high share of off-farm income.     

Quantitative assessment of the Japanese “local production for local consumption” movement: a case study of growth of vegetables in the Osaka city region

This study aimed to assess Japan’s recent “local production for local consumption” (LPLC) movement, with a special focus on vegetables in the Osaka city region of central Japan. After collecting statistics and spatial data, we conducted a multi-scale analysis of vegetable production and consumption along with the associated energy consumption, using geographical information system software at three spatial scales along the vegetable flow paths: national, regional, and local. Vegetables consumed in the Osaka city region came from prefectures throughout Japan, and we mapped the foodshed within this region at 1-km spatial resolution, as well as the distribution of farmland, farmers’ and other markets. We also conducted a scenario analysis for reduced energy consumption through organic farming and the utilization of abandoned farmland near a city to replace food imports from distant areas. We found that the large majority of vegetables consumed in the Osaka city region currently come from remote prefectures, and that this is associated with a high level of energy consumption. Inside the Osaka city region, peri-urban vegetable farming contributes to regional vegetable provision, resulting in an approximately 70 % production/consumption ratio within an 80-km radius of the urban center; if all of the area of abandoned farmland were restored to production, this ratio would increase to approximately 75 %. Organic farming activities that bring together farmers and urbanites are emerging in many parts of the study area, contributing to increased LPLC. Scenario analysis suggested that a decrease of more than 1 × 10⁶ GJ of energy inputs could be achieved through wider adoption of local organic farming for local consumption and complete utilization of abandoned farmland in the Osaka city region.     

小农发展气候智慧型农业的效率与成本改进:倡导农地流转还是发展社会服务?

气候智慧型农业是联合国粮农组织所提出的积极响应气候变化、有效保障作物生产安全的新型农业发展模式。碳减排是发展气候智慧型农业的核心要义,而中国大量且长期存在的小农是发展气候智慧型农业不可背离的重要主体。基于湖北省水稻主产区气候智慧型农业发展的调研,继而利用方向性距离函数对小农发展气候智慧型农业,即低碳生产效率与碳边际减排成本进行测算,并进一步考察小农通过土地流转或农业社会化服务衔接现代农业,对低碳生产效率和碳边际减排成本的影响。结果表明:(1)基于小农发展气候智慧型农业仍处于"低效率—高成本"阶段,水稻低碳生产效率仍存在平均56%的提升空间;碳边际减排成本均值为34.13元/kgCE;(2)土地转入虽未能提升水稻低碳生产效率,但却具有碳边际减排成本优势;(3)生产雇工和农机服务对水稻低碳生产效率和碳边际减排成本均具有显著的正向影响,可见通过农业社会化服务实现低碳生产效率的提升仍面临分工与交易费用的两难之困。基于上述结论,提出促进小农发展气候智慧型农业,实现低碳生产相关政策启示。     

Pesticide handling practices by vegetable farmer in Kenya

Pesticide handling practices have a strong bearing on the exposure of toxic effects to target and nontarget organism. A clear understanding of determinants of pesticide handling practices is a precondition in the design and implementation of policy intervention. To accomplish this, a household survey of 425 respondents was conducted in 2008. Majority of the farmers (85 %) had inappropriately handled pesticides, mainly through, unsafe storage (23 %), unsafe disposal of leftover in either sprays solutions, or rinsate and empty pesticide containers (40 %), failure to wear the required minimum protective gear (68 %), or overdosed pesticides (27 %). However, majority of those farmers were aware of the risks of pesticide use, with over 81 % expressing the view that pesticides have harmful effects on human health, livestock, beneficial arthropods, and on water. Econometric models showed that pesticide handling practices were significantly influenced by variation in record keeping, main source advice on pesticide use, toxicity of pesticide, and geographical location. Pesticide risk perception and negative impacts experiences had no association with handling practices. The study recommends policymakers to design effective, participatory, and location targeted outreach programmes, which deal specifically on promotion of record keeping and reduction in use of harmful pesticides.