The value of disappearing beaches: A hedonic pricing model with endogenous beach width

Beach nourishment is a policy used to rebuild eroding beaches with sand dredged from other locations. Previous studies indicate that beach width positively affects coastal property values, but these studies ignore the dynamic features of beaches and the feedback that nourishment has on shoreline retreat. We correct for the resulting attenuation and endogeneity bias in a hedonic property value model by instrumenting for beach width using spatially varying coastal geological features. We find that the beach width coefficient is nearly five times larger than the OLS estimate, suggesting that beach width is a much larger portion of property value than previously thought. We use the empirical results to parameterize a dynamic optimization model of beach nourishment decisions and show that the predicted interval between nourishment projects is closer to what we observe in the data when we use the estimate from the instrumental variables model rather than OLS. As coastal communities adapt to climate change, we find that the long-term net value of coastal residential property can fall by as much as 52% when erosion rate triples and cost of nourishment sand quadruples.     

Morphodynamic responses of nourished beaches in SW Spain

Coastal erosion in SW Spain is affecting man-made structures and beaches that represent an important economic resource in the area. In the last decade the Spanish government carried out several nourishment works that have limited durability. Most of the artificial beach fills consist of a spill of natural dredged sand on the visible beach, leading to a flat, artificial berm with an important seaward slope and narrow foreshore. As a result, the initial dissipative profile was transformed into a fully reflective one. A beach monitoring program was carried out to record morphological evolution after the nourishment works. Several field assessments of disturbance depth were also made to characterize beach morphodynamics of a nourished beach (Rota) and a natural dissipative one (Tres Piedras), whose slope was similar to the pre-nourishment gradient of Rota beach. Natural dissipative beaches were characterized by spilling breakers that did not significantly affect bottom sand. The severe erosion recorded in the nourished zones was related to the new morphodynamic regime acting on these beaches, which was controlled by high erosive plunging breakers associated with high foreshore slopes. In conclusion, other nourishment practices should be used, better adapted to the natural beach morphodynamics of the zone, taking also into account the original grain size and density of the beach sands, in order to obtain more durable artificial beaches.     

The status of beaches and shoreline development options on the French Riviera: a perspective and a prognosis

Beach conservation and management on the high-value French Riviera in southeastern France have had mixed fortunes in shoreline economic development strategies over the past half century. Prior to 1965, socio-economic growth related to immigration and tourism resulted in considerable pressure on the coastal zone, leading in particular to beach erosion and degradation of beach environmental quality. Between 1965 and 1980, over 20% of the 132 km-long French Riviera was permanently altered through the implantation of yachting harbours and reclamation fill structures, while beach-based recreation had a rather low ranking as a development choice, except in the two major resorts of Cannes and Nice which exhibit a densely urbanized seafront. On this preponderantly boldrocky coast, the mediocre recreational value inherited by many of the beaches from the regional geologic setting, and from development pressures and earlier errors in coastal management, left them vulnerable to appropriation and so-called ‘valorization’ by yachting harbour and estate developers. Over the last decade, artificial shoreline development has virtually ceased, in response to several more or less interrelated factors. These include relative stagnation of socio-economic growth, increasing development and maintenance costs of yachting harbours, saturation of the yachting harbour market as a result of the burgeoning of new, often cheaper, resorts and of reconversion of commercial and shipbuilding ports to leisure ports in the Mediterranean, more stringent legislation, since 1986, on the implantation of residential and major engineering structures on the coastline, pressure for conservation of the cultural and environmental heritage, and greater demand for beach recreational space. This situation has forced a diversification of shore-based activities, as it has been realised that better managed beaches may balance economic aspirations while contributing to enhanced environmental quality and sensible shoreline conservation. This change in strategy has entailed considerable efforts and money on the improvement of coastal water quality, the provision of amenities for beach-goers, and especially the nourishment of eroding beaches and the creation of several artificial beaches. The extent to which beaches will continue to play a role in the sustainable development of French Riviera resorts will depend largely on the capacity of local authorities to maintain environmental quality in the face of inherited and persistent handicaps such as beach erosion.     

The status of beaches and shoreline development options on the French Riviera: a perspective and a prognosis

Beach conservation and management on the high-value French Riviera in southeastern France have had mixed fortunes in shoreline economic development strategies over the past half century. Prior to 1965, socio-economic growth related to immigration and tourism resulted in considerable pressure on the coastal zone, leading in particular to beach erosion and degradation of beach environmental quality. Between 1965 and 1980, over 20% of the 132 km-long French Riviera was permanently altered through the implantation of yachting harbours and reclamation fill structures, while beach-based recreation had a rather low ranking as a development choice, except in the two major resorts of Cannes and Nice which exhibit a densely urbanized seafront. On this preponderantly bold rocky coast, the mediocre recreational value inherited by many of the beaches from the regional geologic setting, and from development pressures and earlier errors in coastal management, left them vulnerable to appropriation and so-called ‘valorization’ by yachting harbour and estate developers. Over the last decade, artificial shoreline development has virtually ceased, in response to several more or less interrelated factors. These include relative stagnation of socio-economic growth, increasing development and maintenance costs of yachting harbours, saturation of the yachting harbour market as a result of the burgeoning of new, often cheaper, resorts and of reconversion of commercial and shipbuilding ports to leisure ports in the Mediterranean, more stringent legislation, since 1986, on the implantation of residential and major engineering structures on the coastline, pressure for conservation of the cultural and environmental heritage, and greater demand for beach recreational space. This situation has forced a diversification of shore-based activities, as it has been realised that better managed beaches may balance economic aspirations while contributing to enhanced environmental quality and sensible shoreline conservation. This change in strategy has entailed considerable efforts and money on the improvement of coastal water quality, the provision of amenities for beach-goers, and especially the nourishment of eroding beaches and the creation of several artificial beaches. The extent to which beaches will continue to play a role in the sustainable development of French Riviera resorts will depend largely on the capacity of local authorities to maintain environmental quality in the face of inherited and persistent handicaps such as beach erosion.     

Dynamic preservation of the coastline in the Netherlands

In 1990, the Government and Parliament of the Netherlands decided on a new national policy for coastal defence. To ensure the enduring safety of the low-lying polders as well as the sustainable preservation of the coastal dunes, it was decided to maintain the coastline in its 1990 position. The main method for coastline preservation in the Netherlands is beach nourishment. Since 1991, approximately 7 million m³ of sand is added to the Dutch beaches annually. From an evaluation study of sand nourishment projects it is concluded that nourishment is an effective and efficient method to preserve the coastline. The evaluation study also proves that nourishment projects should be ‘tailor-made’, taking the local morphological and hydraulic conditions into account. The first results of an experimental shoreface nourishment are discussed. The choice for nourishment as the principal method to combat erosion is well in line with the intention to restore the natural dynamics of the dune-coast in the Netherlands. The key probably is a less strict policy with regard to the maintenance of the foredunes. Plans for the development of typical coastal features such as slufters^*, wash-overs, blow-outs and mobile dunes are currently under discussion. A slufter is a breakthrough in the first dune-ridge whereby the sea invades former dune slacks or beach plains situated behind the duneridge. In this way a tidal marsh is formed within the dune zone.     

Tourist-beach protection in north-eastern Sicily (Italy)

Sicily is the largest island in the Mediterranean, and tourism represents the most important income in the regional budget. This is due to a mild climate, to its considerable archaeological and cultural heritage, but above all to the beaches, which host visitors for most of the year. Nevertheless, Sicily has no official Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) policy and also lacks an overall plan for coastal protection. In 2000, however, driven by the EU, a process of selection of projects based on objective parameters was initiated. Not all of these projects have had the expected results and some are yet to be completed. One of these is Giardini Naxos, Taormina beach, one of the main tourist resorts in Sicily. There, due both to the incorrect position of the port structure and to the rapidly increasing coastal urbanization (second homes, hotels and waterfront), a process of coastal erosion has started, the beach has disappeared, and the promenade has been damaged. To rebuild the shore in order to protect the structures behind it and to restore the coast for beach goers, a submerged barrier (like a reef) was designed to protect an artificial beach replenishment using local and remote sands, mined from the continental platform bottom and compatible both in terms of composition and grain size. Even though the results were excellent during the first stages of the project, towards the end, financial support disappeared and the funds were allocated to other projects. This experience in Giardini Naxos illustrates the ineffectiveness of defensive action in the absence of coastal planning that takes into account the sustainability of interventions on a regional basis both from a structural and an economic standpoint.     

Assessment of coastal erosion susceptibility at the national scale: The Italian case

To improve the present national and local sustainable planning capability for the coastal zone a GI application for the Italian Coastal Susceptibility Assessment was planned within an institutional agreement between ENEA and the Land Defence Service of the Italian Ministry of Environment. Taking into account previous European actions a suitable methodology to assess, in a quantitative way, the susceptibility of beaches to be eroded has been set up. The methodology balances the coastline trend as evaluated for a defined time period with the present coastal areas morphology and land use, this in order to derive a value that expresses the evolutionary process in terms of probability of the loss of goods within the ‘Homogeneous Coastal Tracts’. The trend in the movement of the sea-land line has been used asgeo-indicator of a complex dynamic balance that refers both to marine and inland systems, and a vector GI application was built and locally applied in southern Italian coastal areas. The present shoreline position and some other information describing the intrinsic beach morphologies, and having significance for the coastal erosion hazard assessment, have been derived from the national 1∶10.000 ortho-images of the National Cartographic Reference System provided by the Italian Ministry of Environment. The illustrated GI application— CoSTAT—keeps the nominal scale of all data collected or produced. In this analysis the coastal dune presence is analysed as factor limiting coastal erosion susceptibility. Applying a matrix calculation a quantitative evaluation of erosion susceptibility degree was achieved and plans were made to develop new information for a suitable use of Italian coastal areas. The work describes the methodology, the conceptual frame-work and the results of a local application.     

Beachgoers’ perceptions of sandy beach conditions: demographic and attitudinal influences,and the implications for beach ecosystem management

Sandy beaches represent typical venues for recreation and tourism worldwide, as well as part of the lifestyle and identity of coastal communities. Their overexploitation, however, threatens their survival. Especially in urban areas, beach management requires balancing needs by different users and obligations to protect beach functions, including conservation. In light of this, research about the human dimension of beach ecosystems has been advanced as a way to assist planning and decision making in beach management. This study assessed beachgoers' perceptions of sandy beach conditions in South Africa, by means of a questionnaire survey. The effects of demographic profile, travelling habits, motivations to visit, and recreational preferences on beachgoers' perceptions of beach conditions were tested. Beachgoers shared a general concern for the wellbeing of sandy beaches, with particular reference to the state of biodiversity and conservation. They also gave great importance to the values underlying beach ecosystems. Three motivations to visit groups and four recreational preferences types were identified. Demography, travelling habits, motivations to visit, and recreational preferences all influenced perceptions of beach conditions. The results from this study were used to draw management recommendations, with particular attention towards the promotion of conservation while also maintaining the recreational quality of urban sandy beaches. The results also highlighted the relevance of considering users' views as a tool in decision-making processes in Integrated Coastal Zone Management.     

Characteristics and potential environmental impacts of sand material from sand dunes and uplifted marine terraces as potential borrow sites for beach nourishment along the Jordanian coast of the Gulf of Aqaba

The coastal zone management and development plans which include tourism development necessitate among many other management practices, the extension of the available area of the present natural but narrow, limited and widely eroded beaches by implementing some type of nourishment practices. The present work is providing information on selected sites as possible sources of suitable sand, chemical and granulometric characteristics of their sand, and the potential direct and long-term environmental effects and consequences of its use in any future nourishment practices. Seven sites located within the up-lifted terraces area along the Jordanian portion of the Gulf of Aqaba, were selected as potential sources or borrow sites for sand that may be used in any future nourishment projects. Two sites were selected at the northeastern side of Aqaba region to represent sand dunes. Sand material from these sites were analyzed for their physical characteristics (grain size) as well as their content of heavy metals, organic carbon, total nitrogen, total phosphorous, and calcium carbonate. Standard methodological techniques were used during analysis of all constituents. The results were compared with those obtained from the analysis of sand deposits of six beaches along the Jordanian coastline of the Gulf of Aqaba. Results indicate that sand of the selected borrow sites has grain size fractions that are suitable for use in beach nourishment. Results of the measured pollution indicators indicate that their levels in the sand of the potential borrow sites are within or lower than their levels in the marine and coastal sediments of the Gulf of Aqaba and the Red Sea. These properties, in addition to the wide occurrence and availability of such sources along the coasts of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba, suggest that it will be a cheep source of sand for beach extension and restoration and their use in large amounts in beach nourishment project will not pose major hazards on the quality of seawater of the Gulf of Aqaba area     

A holistic evaluation of a typical coast nourishment on the Danish West Coast

The case described in this article regards 4.7 km of beach in Ferring, situated approx. 5 km south to the mouth of the Limfjord strait on the west coast of Denmark. In 2005, this section of the beach was nourished with 721,000 m³ of material in order to protect backshore properties, natural heritages and the recreational value of the beach. After the nourishment, the beach was monitored by levelling profiles on four dates to monitor and track the evolution of the nourished material. Furthermore, laboratory tests involving different gradations of nourishment material are shown which indicate solutions to different kinds of coastal protection strategies, estimate the time in between two nourishments and evaluate the cost of maintaining a beach with a high recreational value for the public.     

Physical damage to coastal dunes and ecological impacts caused by vehicle tracks associated with beach camping on sandy shores: a case study from Fraser Island,Australia

As coastal populations expand, demands for recreational opportunities on beaches and coastal dunes grow correspondingly. Although dunes are known to be sensitive to direct human disturbance and provide irreplaceable ecosystem services (e.g. erosion control, critical habitat and nesting sites), dunes serve as campsites for large numbers of people (∼90,000 p.a.) on the ocean-exposed shores of Fraser Island, Australia. Campsites are located in the established dunes and can only be accessed with 4WD vehicles along tracks cut directly from the beach through the foredunes. Here we quantified the extent of physical damage to foredunes caused by this practice, and tested whether human-induced physical changes to foredunes translate into biological effects. Of the 124 km of ocean-exposed beaches, 122 km (98%) are open to vehicles driven on the beaches, and camping zones cover 28.7 km or 23% of the dunes. A total of 235 vehicle tracks are cut across the foredunes at an average density of eight tracks per km of beach. These tracks have effectively destroyed one-fifth (20.2%) of the dune front in camping zones, deeply incising the dune-beach interface. There is evidence of accelerated erosion and shoreline retreat centred around vehicle tracks, resulting in a “scalloping” of the shoreline. No dune vegetation remains in the tracks and the abundance of ghost crabs (Ocypode spp.) is significantly reduced compared with the abutting dunes. Because current levels of environmental change caused by dune camping may not be compatible with the sustainable use of coastal resources and conservation obligations for the island (listed as a World Heritage Area and gazetted as a National Park), restoration and mitigation interventions are critical. These will require spatial prioritisation of effort, and we present a multi-criteria ranking method, based on quantitative measures of environmental damage and ecological attributes, to objectively target rehabilitation and conservation measures. Ultimately, coastal management needs to develop and implement strategies that reconcile demands for human recreation, including beach camping, with conservation of coastal dune ecosystems.     

Seaward coastal defence: limitations and possibilities

In The Netherlands shoreline retreat is actively counteracted, mostly by means of beach nourishment in which some allowance is made for natural fluctuations. For some parts of the coast, however, a more active socalled ‘seaward coastal defence strategy’ might be more profitable. This applies to coasts with a small dune ridge subject to severe erosion. According to this strategy the morphological system is influenced in such a way that erosion is prevented, which will result in a stable or even an accretion coastline. The effectiveness of the seaward coastal defence strategy has to be compared with maintenance by beach nourishment. The effects on the morphological system, the environment and other interests must also be analysed. Several seaward solutions are possible. In order to gain more insight into the behaviour of these solutions, comparative pilot studies have been executed for the most vulnerable locations. This paper gives an overview of the main conclusions of the pilot studies in comparison with sand nourishment, the main coastal defence measure.     

Coastline management in The Netherlands: human use versus natural dynamics

The boundary between land and sea in The Netherlands changes continuously. Every kilometre of the present position of the Dutch sandy coastline is the result of the interface between natural dynamics initiated by the sea and man-made action on land. Before 1990, each year ca. 20 ha of dunes disappeared through coastal retreat. In 1990 the Dutch government decided to stop any further long-term coastal recession and chose for ‘dynamic preservation’, which primarily aims, at ensuring safety against flooding and sustainable preservation of the values and interests attached to the dunes and beaches. Five years later, a first review of the benefits and bottlenecks of the new coastal defence policy could be presented. The overall conclusion is that the 1990-choice for dynamic preservation was right. The considerable losses of dunes and beaches do not occur any longer. Sand nourishment is an effective method of coastline maintenance, which also serves the functions of the beach and dune area for human society. However, serious erosion of the deeper part of the shoreface threatens the coastline of the 21st century. Nearly a doubling of the nourishment volume is necessary to prevent a renewed landward shift of the coastline. An anticipated accelerated sea level rise (ca. 60 cm/century) will increase the sand losses by another 25%. Plans are being finalized for large-scale land reclamation in front of the coastline as an answer to growing spatial problems on land. In other plans polders, now safely protected by sea dikes, will be returned to the sea in order to restore ecologically valuable salt marshes and mud flats. The position of the coastline will continue to change in the coming decades. Besides natural dynamics, human use of the coastal zone will certainly affect this process: measures to maintain the coastline at its 1990 position need to be seen in perspective: the coastline as a part of the coastalzone.     

Morphological cells in the Ragusa littoral (Sicily, Italy)

Geomorphologic information, topographic maps (dated 1967), aerial photographs (dated 1999 and 2008), and spatial analysis procedures were used to investigate a 90 km long coastal sector in South Sicily (Italy). Information was obtained on coastal erosion/accretion areas, general sediment circulation pattern and littoral cell distribution. Human-made structures and natural headlands constituted important artificial limits dividing littoral in morphological cells. Ports and harbours were observed at Scoglitti, Punta Secca, Marina di Ragusa, Donnalucata and Pozzallo. Most of them worked as “transit” limits which interrupted predominant, eastward directed sedimentary transport, this way generating accretion in updrift (west) side of mentioned structures and erosion in downdrift (east) side. During the 1967–2008 period, about 62,000 m² and 42,000 m² of beach surface were respectively formed updrift of Scoglitti and Donnalucata ports. The construction of Pozzallo port gave rise to the formation of a “convergent” limit which favoured large accretion (94,000 m²) east of port structure. Most important natural structures were observed at Punta Zafaglione, P. Braccetto and Cava d’Aliga. The knowledge of littoral cell distribution acquires a great importance for appropriate management of coastal erosion processes which may be mitigated installing by-passing systems in ports and harbours and carrying out nourishment works in eroding areas, often located downdrift of ports and harbours (when these structures work as transit limits) and in central part of littoral cells (when these structures work as convergent limits).     

Shoreline rotation and response to nourishment of a gravel embayed beach using a low-cost video monitoring technique: San Michele-Sassi Neri,Central Italy

On beaches where natural shoreline variability is significant, beach nourishment is a useful engineering method to augment the dry beach and protect infrastructure and/or unstable cliffs. In this study, a low-cost video monitoring system is used to monitor the shoreline response to a nourishment operation on a dynamic gravel embayed beach in Central Italy. Video-derived shorelines were collected over a 15-month period to measure the evolution of the beach with regards to three specific parameters: the dry beach width, the dry beach area and the beach orientation. Moderate increases in the dry beach width of 3.6 m and 6.7 m across the embayment were observed in response to two different gravel nourishments of approximately 40,000 m³ and 46,000 m³ respectively. The orientation of the beach meanwhile was found to rotate rapidly in the clockwise direction and more gradually in the counter-clockwise direction. Analyses of individual storm events suggest these rapid clockwise rotations are caused by ESE storms, which result in beach retreat particularly at the southern end. The combination of an overall narrow beach width and a clockwise beach orientation is observed to cause a cliff erosion event at a vulnerable point along the embayment.     

Determination of set-back lines on eroding coasts. Example of the beaches of the Gulf of Lions (French Mediterranean Coast)

The study presented here describes a method for defining set-back lines along eroding coasts. The method (a mathematical model) combines the long-term shoreline retreat trend with short-term shoreline erosion (during storms). Simulations are carried out for 2030 and compared with the beach width to determine whether the shoreline is likely to shift onshore. The mathematical model is applied to the Frontignan and Carnon beaches (south of France). Both sites possess hard engineering coastal structures and downdrift erosion on the natural beaches. The set-back lines indicate that beaches with groynes are generally wide enough to resist shoreline retreat, while the downdrift “natural” beaches are not. We discuss the possible utilisation of set-back line estimations.     

Beneficial use of dredged sand for beach nourishment and coastal landform enhancement—the case study of Tróia, Portugal

In the winter of 2006/2007 approximately 200,000 m³ of high quality sand from the dredging of the local marina were placed at the ocean-side beaches in the vicinity of a tourism development in Tróia, Portugal. The beach-quality sediment provided a source of “sand of opportunity” which was used to increase the dry-beach width of the highly used coastal stretch. The sediment was placed along approximately 600 m of shoreline and a monitoring program has since being carried out twice a year. High-resolution topographic surveys and sediment analysis are being conducted to evaluate the performance and response of the fill to the local forcing factors and ultimately to evaluate the effectiveness of the fill project. Two years after the nourishment, the sediment has been distributed both cross-shore and alongshore. The pre-nourishment beach slope was attained and the new shoreline has acquired a natural shape. Berm width increased by a maximum of 100 m, and a set of new dune ridges has developed, due to sand accumulation promoted by the settlement of vegetation. In conclusion, 2 years after its completion, the beach nourishment in Tróia can be viewed as a successful project in which the beneficial use of dredged material resulted in: 1) area for increased dune field growth and development, 2) enhancement of potential shorebird nesting areas and habitat, and 3) increased area for recreation purposes.     

Changing morphology of Ghana’s Accra coast

Coastal features in Ghana's Accra coast reflect both past and present processes that have been undergoing changes. These changes are influenced by a range of morphogenic factors such as geology and climatic conditions. These regimes have shaped the coastal geomorphic features through weathering processes that decompose and disintegrate the coastal rock. Sea level rise due to climate change is expected to increase coastal erosion and thus result in rapid changes in shoreline positions. Historic rate of sea level rise in Accra coast is about 2 mm/yr (Ibe & Quelennec, 1989) which is predicted to reach approximately 6 mm/yr in the next century since it conforms to the global change (Armah et al., 2005). This will result in flooding of vulnerable areas and enable waves to break closer inland. The effectiveness of the erosion process is aided considerably by the type of geology. Accra coastal zone has three types of rock in three identified geomorphic regions. They include unconsolidated and poorly consolidated rock along the western region, the Accraian series occupying the central region and the Dahomeyan series in the eastern region. The geology has thus influenced the extent to which the coastal features have changed and the type of cliff that is formed as a result of erosion within the regions. Generally, soft rock coastal features decay more rapidly than those of hard rock and tend to act as sediment sources. Human activities such as dam construction over the Densu River, engineering interventions to check the spread of erosion and sand mining has created sediment deficit which has exacerbated coastal erosion in Accra. Anthropogenic factors are estimated to account for 70-90% of coastal erosion problems in Accra.     

Current status and future restoration of coastal dune systems on the Catalan shoreline (Spain,NW Mediterranean Sea)

Coastal dunes are an essential part of beach-dune systems. Dunes systems have their own intrinsic values and provide a range of goods and services, including the protection of tangible goods located on the shoreline affected by waves, storms, and sea erosion. Dunes also act as repositories of biodiversity that have their exclusive habitat in dune communities, and the aesthetic value of dune landscapes derived from unique plant communities and landforms is also of great importance. Nevertheless, dune systems on developed coasts suffered a drastic decline in geomorphological and ecological quality throughout the last century. Catalonia (Spain, NW Mediterranean Sea) is no exception, and the coastal dune systems which were present in the early 20th century have now disappeared due to urbanization. The regeneration of dune systems is of crucial importance in this context. The aim of this study is to assess the current status of dune systems in Catalonia in order to determine their future prospects based on beach characteristics, those beaches likely to host dunes being determined according to their width and sediment type. The results of our study show that nowadays most dune systems in Catalonia are not developed due to human pressure on the beaches. Only those beaches located in the natural protected areas in Roses Bay, Baix Ter Bay, the Llobregat Delta, and especially the Ebro Delta, have the right characteristics to host well-developed dune systems. That said, 30% of sandy beaches in Catalonia have a width of over 35 metres; wide enough to host well-developed dune systems if appropriate integrated beach management is applied. The methodology used in this research also provide a tool to assess which are the beaches that can host dunes on other developed shores in the Mediterranean area.