A material flow analysis on current electrical and electronic waste disposal from Hong Kong households

A material flow study on five types of household electrical and electronic equipment, namely television, washing machine, air conditioner, refrigerator and personal computer (TWARC) was conducted to assist the Government of Hong Kong to establish an e-waste take-back system. This study is the first systematic attempt on identifying key TWARC waste disposal outlets and trade practices of key parties involved in Hong Kong. Results from two questionnaire surveys, on local households and private e-waste traders, were used to establish the material flow of household TWARC waste. The study revealed that the majority of obsolete TWARC were sold by households to private e-waste collectors and that the current e-waste collection network is efficient and popular with local households. However, about 65,000 tonnes/yr or 80% of household generated TWARC waste are being exported overseas by private e-waste traders, with some believed to be imported into developing countries where crude recycling methods are practiced. Should Hong Kong establish a formal recycling network with tight regulatory control on imports and exports, the potential risks of current e-waste recycling practices on e-waste recycling workers, local residents and the environment can be greatly reduced.     

Cross-cultural comparison of concrete recycling decision-making and implementation in construction industry

Waste management is pressing very hard with alarming signals in construction industry. Concrete waste constituents major proportions of construction and demolition waste of 81% in Australia. To minimize concrete waste generated from construction activities, recycling concrete waste is one of the best methods to conserve the environment. This paper investigates concrete recycling implementation in construction. Japan is a leading country in recycling concrete waste, which has been implementing 98% recycling and using it for structural concrete applications. Hong Kong is developing concrete recycling programs for high-grade applications. Australia is making relatively slow progress in implementing concrete recycling in construction. Therefore, empirical studies in Australia, Hong Kong, and Japan were selected in this paper. A questionnaire survey and structured interviews were conducted. Power spectrum was used for analysis. It was found that “increasing overall business competitiveness and strategic business opportunities” was considered as the major benefit for concrete recycling from Hong Kong and Japanese respondents, while “rising concrete recycling awareness such as selecting suitable resources, techniques and training and compliance with regulations” was considered as the major benefit from Australian respondents. However, “lack of clients’ support”, “increase in management cost” and “increase in documentation workload, such as working documents, procedures and tools” were the major difficulties encountered from Australian, Hong Kong, and Japanese respondents, respectively. To improve the existing implementation, “inclusion of concrete recycling evaluation in tender appraisal” and “defining clear legal evaluation of concrete recycling” were major recommendations for Australian and Hong Kong, and Japanese respondents, respectively.     

International aspects of recycling of electrical and electronic equipment: material circulation in the East Asian region

This article examines the present circumstances of recycling of end-of-life electrical and electronic equipment discarded in Japan from the domestic and international viewpoints of material circulation. It is pointed out that some of the discarded items are absorbed into an invisible flow by informal economic activities, being exported in the form of secondhand equipment and secondary materials. Since the equipment has a pollution potential as well as a resource potential, it is anticipated that the pollution potential may possibly be realized if the equipment is mishandled at recycling plants in developing countries. To reduce the invisible flow as much as possible and to reduce the pollution potential from diffusion in developing countries, a policy tool such as extended producer responsibility should be applied to retailers of the equipment, as well as to producers.     

Domestic waste recycling,collective action and economic incentive: The case in Hong Kong

Efficacy of waste recycling is one of the key determinants of environmental sustainability of a city. Like other pro-environmental activities, waste recycling cannot be successfully accomplished by just one or two people, but only by a concerted effort of the community. The collective-action dilemma creates a common underlying difficulty in formulating workable solutions to many environmental problems. With a view to the non-excludability of the outcome, rationality drives people to free-ride efforts of others in waste recycling. To solve this free-rider problem, some scholars suggest the use of economic incentive. This article attempts to study the impacts of reward schemes on waste recycling behaviour of residents in 122 private housing estates in Hong Kong. The study is differentiable from the others as the latter mainly focus on domestic waste recycling in low-rise low-density housing while this one looks into the same in a high-rise high-density residential setting. According to the results of analyses on a set of aggregate data, reward schemes are found to have a significant positive relationship with the per-household weight of recyclables collected, keeping other things constant. The research findings suggest that economic incentives do work in promoting waste recycling in Hong Kong. Practical and policy implications follow.     

Secondary materials transfer from Japan to China: destination analysis

China has been the largest importer of secondary materials for recycling from Japan during the past decade. In this study, we analyzed the transfer of major secondary materials (plastic, steel, copper, and aluminum scrap) from Japan to China. We identified specific destinations for secondary materials, and the characteristics of secondary materials transferred to China. The major destination for the transfer of secondary materials to China is Guangdong province and part of the Huadong area (Shanghai, Zhejiang, and Jiangsu). Most scrap metal imported into China is of low quality. The destinations of most high-quality nonferrous scrap, imported as processed goods on consignment or through the transit improvement trade, are the northeast border provinces, especially Xinjiang Uighur province. The coefficients of specialization for Chinese cities were different from those for the provinces. Guangdong shows an average recycling structure for China. The structure gradually changes from south to north.     

Domestic waste management and recovery in Hong Kong

This article presents a review of the current municipal solid waste (MSW) and domestic waste generation and recovery situation in Hong Kong and identifies the factors affecting the waste generation rates. The results show that before 1997, MSW and domestic waste generation rates were driven by population growth and growth in the gross domestic product, with the latter having the larger effect. But recent waste generation data show poor correlation between waste generation rates and economic and population figures due to the increase in recycling efforts in the community. The results are also reported of a small-scale survey to explore the public attitude to waste recovery. The results show that most domestic householders have developed habits to carry out separation of waste at source for recycling, but the amount of recyclables recovered was low.     

Material flow analysis of used personal computers in Japan

Most personal computers (PCs) are discarded by consumers after the data files have been moved to a new PC. Therefore, a used PC collection scheme should be created that does not depend on the distribution route of new PCs. In Japan, manufacturers’ voluntary take-back recycling schemes were established in 2001 (for business PCs) and 2003 (for household PCs). At the same time, the export of used PCs from Japan increased, affecting the domestic PC reuse market. These regulatory and economic conditions would have changed the flow of used PCs.In this paper, we developed a method of minimizing the errors in estimating the material flow of used PCs. The method’s features include utilization of both input and output flow data and elimination of subjective estimation as much as possible. Flow rate data from existing surveys were used for estimating the flow of used PCs in Japan for fiscal years (FY) 2000, 2001, and 2004. The results show that 3.92 million and 4.88 million used PCs were discarded in FY 2000 and 2001, respectively. Approximately two-thirds of the discarded PCs were disposed of or recycled within the country, one-fourth was reused within the country, and 8% were exported. In FY 2004, 7.47 million used PCs were discarded. The ratio of domestic disposal and recycling decreased to 37% in FY 2004, whereas the domestic reuse and export ratios increased to 37% and 26%, respectively. Flows from businesses to retailers in FY 2004 increased dramatically, which led to increased domestic reuse. An increase in the flow of used PCs from lease and rental companies to secondhand shops has led to increased exports. Results of interviews with members of PC reuse companies were and trade statistics were used to verify the results of our estimation of domestic reuse and export of used PCs.     

Evaluation method of automobile recycling systems for Asia considering international material cycles: application to Japan and Thailand

To examine an appropriate recycling system for end-of-life vehicles (ELVs) from Japan in the context of Asia, an Asian international automobile recycling input-output (AI-ARIO) analysis is presented. The AI-ARIO analysis spatially expands the existing ARIO analysis within the framework of the waste input-output (WIO) analysis developed by Nakamura et al., which considers the interdependence between the flow of goods and wastes in a country. This analysis focuses on the local and global cycles for ELVs in Asia and can evaluate the environmental and economic effects of alternative recycling systems. We estimated the AI-ARIO table for Japan and Thailand and applied it to scenario analyses covering the restriction of ELV trade between the two countries, the introduction of new recycling techniques in Thailand, and centralized treatment in Japan. We verified the applicability and effectiveness of the AI-ARIO analysis through the scenario analyses.     

Distribution flow of used motorcycles exported from Japan

This study focuses on used motorcycles (UMCs) that are exported from Japan, observes identifiable characteristics of each destination country's UMC exports, and categorizes their distribution flows. Based on the findings from precedent research, results from compiled data of trade statistics, and field surveys, this study reveals the following characteristics. (1) UMCs are continuously exported to the United Arab Emirates (UAE), but the export numbers fluctuate yearly. The UAE also exports large numbers of UMCs with low displacements and UMCs from all statistical categories except for “other.” (2) The number of UMCs exports to Cambodia has been increasing since 2011. In addition, changes in exports from 51 to 250 cc to low displacements of 50 cc and less are identified. Cambodia also exported UMCs from all statistical categories except “other.” (3) The number of UMCs exports to Myanmar has been increasing since 2015, and the primary units exported exhibit “electric motor propulsion as a motor driving force.” (4) Country trade features are identified and UAE is designated as a “transit trade type” and both Cambodia and Myanmar as “domestic distribution types.”

     

Generation of and control measures for, e-waste in Hong Kong

While accurately estimating electrical and electronic waste (e-waste) generation is important for building appropriate infrastructure for its collection and recycling, making reliable estimates of this kind is difficult in Hong Kong owing to the fact that neither accurate trade statistics nor sales data of relevant products are available. In view of this, data of e-products consumption at household level was collected by a tailor-made questionnaire survey from the public for obtaining a reasonable e-waste generation estimate.It was estimated that on average no more than 80,443 tonnes (11.5 kg/capita) of waste is generated from non-plasma and non-liquid crystal display televisions, refrigerators, washing machines, air-conditioners and personal computers each year by Hong Kong households. However, not more than 17% of this is disposed as waste despite a producer responsibility scheme (PRS) not being in place because of the existence of a vibrant e-waste trading sector. The form of PRS control that can possibly win most public support is one that would involve the current e-waste traders as a major party in providing the reverse logistics with a visible recycling charge levied at the point of importation. This reverse logistic service should be convenient, reliable and highly accessible to the consumers.     

Measuring bulky waste arisings in Hong Kong

All too often, waste authorities either assume that they know enough about their bulky waste stream or that it is too insignificant to deserve attention. In this paper, we use Hong Kong as an example to illustrate that official bulky waste figures can actually be very different from the reality and therefore important waste management decisions made based on such statistics may be wrong too. This study is also the first attempt in Hong Kong to outline the composition of bulky waste.It was found that about 342 tonnes/day of wood waste were omitted by official statistics owing to incomplete records on actual bulky waste flow. This is more than enough to provide all the feedstock needed for one regular-sized wood waste recycling facility in Hong Kong. In addition, the proportion of bulky waste in the municipal solid waste (MSW) streams in Hong Kong should be about 6.1% instead of the officially stated 1.43%. Admittedly, there are limitations with this study. Yet, present findings are suggestive of significant MSW data distortion in Hong Kong.     

Recycling of WEEE plastics: a review

Electric and electronic equipment (EEE) is swiftly growing in volume, level of sophistication, and diversity. Also, it evolves briskly, moved by innovation and technical change, and draws on numerous and at times rare resources. Waste EEE (WEEE) has evolved into an important societal problem. Recycling and treating WEEE implies occupational as well as environmental hazards that are still incompletely documented. Still, second hand EEE has been exported and treated in Africa, China, and India in a precarious informal context. In developed countries, EEE recycling has been sustained by a wide range of initiatives and motives, such as sustainability, creating jobs, and the value of precious or rare metals. Current EU Directives require a steep reduction of WEEE plastics (WEEP) going to landfill. Mechanical, thermal, and feedstock recycling of WEEP are analysed and some options confronted. Plastics recycling should be weighed against the eventual risks related to their hazardous ingredients, mainly legacy brominated fire retardants and heavy metals. Another paper is related to a somewhat similar problem, yet involving a different mix of plastics: recycling plastics from automotive shredder residue.     

生产者责任延伸制度EPR下废旧轮胎循环利用研究

技术和制度是资源循环利用中的两大关键点。为了提高资源循环利用率,做好这两点缺一不可。目前,我国在废旧轮胎的回收和利用制度方面尚不完善,需要出台相关的法律法规从源头上规范废旧轮胎再生利用的各个环节,生产者责任延伸制度EPR即是其中重要一环。重点介绍了发达国家和地区在废旧轮胎循环利用中的一些经验,并对我国在废旧轮胎管理制度上提出建议。     

发达国家废玻璃回收利用经验及借鉴

介绍了发达国家处理和再利用废玻璃的经验,提出我国应借鉴发达国家经验,从科研、政策、法律等方面加强废玻璃的再利用工作。     

Reuse of secondhand TVs exported from Japan to the Philippines

The trade of secondhand electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) from developed to developing countries has become a growing environmental issue owing to concerns about improper recycling of these goods in developing countries. We followed a 12-m cargo container of cathode-ray-tube color TVs exported from Japan to the Philippines in February 2008. We surveyed the number of TVs damaged in transport, as well as the number of malfunctioning TVs from this shipment. In addition, we present the results of interviews with 113 Filipino consumers who intended to buy secondhand EEE at nine secondhand shops in Metro Manila. Approximately 3% of the imported TVs were damaged upon arrival. The importer sold some of the units directly to local dealers, and kept the rest to repair, refurbish and resell. Approximately 40% of the imported TVs malfunctioned and needed repair in addition to basic reconditioning. Most interviewees indicated that they prefer to buy secondhand EEE because the prices are lower than those of brand-new products. Consumers indicated that they planned on using the product for an average of about 5 years, but the actual period of use may be lower. Most end-of-life EEE in the Philippines is dismantled and recycled by unregulated companies and untrained individuals in markets or near landfill sites, and it is clear that a proper collection system and treatment methods are needed for e-waste. In addition to the material flow of secondhand TVs, we also discuss several economic aspects and appropriate control measures of the international reuse of secondhand TVs.     

Current recycling regulations and technologies for the typical plastic components of end-of-life passenger vehicles: a meaningful lesson for China

China became the largest automotive producer and the biggest automobile market in the world in 2009, but the scrap vehicle recycling industry is still in its beginning stage. Especially, the scrapped plastic parts recycling technology lags behind developed countries. Therefore, in-depth studies on the recycling of automotive plastics are significant and beneficial for environmental protection, energy conservation and the sustainable development of the Chinese automotive plastic industry. In this article, automotive plastic components recycling-related rules and regulations about developed countries and China are discussed first. According to the passenger vehicle plastic part types, the recycling technologies for typical plastic components of end-of-life passenger vehicle are analyzed comprehensively. Based on the combination of contemporary domestic and foreign plastic recycling technology and the result of the current research, the problems and future development for the ELVs plastic recycling industry in China are deliberated, at the same time, some constructive ideas and suggestions for the industry are provided.     

Economic growth and trends of municipal waste treatment options in Asian countries

Many developing Asian countries are rapidly expanding their economies. Economic growth affects waste management policy development. Statistical analyses applied to Japan, Korea, and China indicate a positive correlation between gross domestic product (GDP) per capita and incineration rate. However, they show a negative correlation between GDP per capita and composting rate in Japan and China, and a positive correlation in Korea. Historical prefectural/provincial data indicate that in Japan and in China, although the incineration rate in a specific year differs due to regional conditions, the rate has increased in parallel with economic growth. An analytic hierarchy process was conducted with experts and government officials from Southeast and East Asian countries. The results statistically confirm the trend correlated with economic growth, which was suggested by previous studies and mentioned by experts based on their experience. For instance, social acceptance was important in upper middle-income countries (USD 4,036–12,475). These results support the possibility that economic growth affects the selection of waste treatment options.     

An international comparative study of end-of-life vehicle (ELV) recycling systems

End-of-life vehicles (ELV) have become a global concern as automobiles have become popular worldwide. An international workshop was held to gather data and to discuss 3R policies and ELV recycling systems, their background and present situation, outcomes of related policies and programs, the framework of recycling and waste management, and case studies on related topics in several countries and regions, as well as the essential points of the comparison. Legislative ELV recycling systems are established in the EU, Japan, Korea, and China, while in the US, ELV recycling is managed under existing laws on environmental protection. Since automobile shredding residue (ASR) has a high calorific value and ash content, and includes heavy metals as well as a mass of unclassified fine particles, recycling ASR is considered highly difficult. Countries with a legislative ELV system commonly set a target for recovery rates, with many aiming for more than 95 % recovery. In order to reach this target, higher efficiency in ASR recovery is needed, in addition to material recycling of collectable components and metals. Environmentally friendly design was considered necessary at the planning and manufacturing stages, and the development of recycling systems and techniques in line with these changes are required for sound ELV management.     

Estimation of world trade for used automobiles

In order to provide the basic information for building an international automobile recycling system, this article attempts to estimate the multilateral trade for used automobiles. First, the problems in evaluation of the used automobile trade were clarified through the trade data obtained from the United Nations database (UN-DB) and the Global Trade Information Services database (GTI-DB). Furthermore, we developed an estimation method for the used automobile trade using the highlighted advantages of the UN-DB and GTI-DB. The reasons for employing this estimation method were to correct the systematic errors in both databases and to sample used automobile data from the UN-DB by using the new and used automobile information in the GTI-DB. The world trade volume for used passenger cars in 2005 was estimated by the method developed. These results indicated that total trade volume was 5.65 × 10⁶ vehicles, and that the exports from Germany, the United States, and Japan comprise 22%, 21%, and 20% of the global total, respectively. Moreover, the results indicate that these countries export used passenger cars not only to developing countries (54%), but also to developed countries (46%).     

WEEE flow and mitigating measures in China

The research presented in this paper shows that Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) issues associated with home appliances, such as TV sets, refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners, and personal computers, are linked in the WEEE flow and recycling systems and are important to matters of public policy and regulation. In this paper, the sources and generation of WEEE in China are identified, and WEEE volumes are calculated. The results show that recycling capacity must increase if the rising quantity of domestic WEEE is to be handled properly. Simultaneously, suitable WEEE treatment will generate large volumes of secondary resources. Environmental problems caused by the existing recycling processes have been investigated in a case study. Problems mainly stem from open burning of plastic-metal parts and from precious metals leaching techniques that utilize acids. The existing WEEE flow at the national level was investigated and described. It became obvious that a considerable amount of obsolete items are stored in homes and offices and have not yet entered the recycling system. The reuse of used appliances has become a high priority for WEEE collectors and dealers because reuse generates higher economic profits than simple material recovery. The results of a cost analysis of WEEE flow shows that management and collection costs significantly influence current WEEE management. Heated discussions are ongoing in political and administrative bodies as to whether extended producer responsibilities policies are promoting WEEE recycling and management. This paper also discusses future challenges and strategies for WEEE management in China.