Urban forest in China: Development patterns,influencing factors and research prospects

Urban forest is a very important part of urban ecosystems and provides significant ecosystem services. It benefits urban communities environmentally, aesthetically, recreationally and economically. This article reviews the development status, development patterns and influencing factors of urban forest in China. There are four typical development patterns of urban forest in China: the forest city, garden city, ecological economics and forest greenbelt. Social, climatic, economic and other factors influence urban forest development in China. Social factors include government behaviour, laws and regulations, science and technology, education and culture, public awareness and participation, ecological planning and management. Climatic factors include rainfall, temperature and sunlight. Economic factors include urban economic level and funding for urban forest. In future, government, NGOs and the private sector should be considered more in the planning and management of urban forest. The social, climatic and economic factors should be taken into account when improving urban forest management. Research on urban forest from the academic and the management viewpoint should be strengthened. This can improve the development and management of urban forest in China and in other developing countries.     

中国的生态城市建设及生态产业方法在其中的作用

生态城市是一类具有经济高产生态高效的产业、系统负责社会和谐的文化、结构健康生命力强的景观的行政单元.其建设目标是通过规划、设计、管理和建设生态景观、生态产业和生态文化来实现结构耦合的合理、代谢过程的平衡和功能的可持续性.生态城市是以生态经济学、系统工程学为理论基础,通过改变生产方式、消费行为和决策手段,实现在当地生态系统承载能力范围内可持续的、健康的人类生态过程.体制整合、科技孵化、企业投资、公众参与和政府引导是生态城市发展的基本方法.清洁生产和生态产业是生态城市建设的关键.在搞好技术和管理的同时,怎样在局地和区域生态系统尺度上整合生产、消费和还原功能,建设一类和谐的生态景观,企业的空间和城市尺度应予以充分的重视.     

Ecological network determination of sectoral linkages, utility relations and structural characteristics on urban ecological economic system

Analyzing the structure and functioning of the urban system revealed ways to optimize its structure by adjusting the relationships among compartments, thereby demonstrating how ecological network analysis can be used in urban system research. Based on the account of the extended exergy utilization in the sector of urban socio-economic system, which is considered as the composition of extraction (Ex), conversion (Co), agriculture (Ag), industry (In), transportation (Tr), tertiary (Te) and households (Do) sectors, an urban ecological network model is constructed to gain insights into the economic processes oriented to sustainable urban development. Taking Beijing city as the case, the network accounting and related ecological evaluation of a practical urban economy are carried out in this study in the light of flux, efficiency, utility and structure analysis. The results showed that a large quantity of energy and resources have to be consumed to maintain the structure and function of a city. The thermodynamic efficiencies of individual sector in Beijing remain at a low level. The social system in Beijing is a highly competitive network, and there are 8 competitive relations and only two mutualistic ones. The Domestic and Agricultural sector are the major controlling factors of the system. Moreover, the assessment results of Beijing are compared with the other three socio-economic systems, Norway, UK and Italy, and the ecological network function and structure comparisons are correspondingly illuminated and discussed. The conclusions indicate that the exergy-based network analysis can be refined to become an integrative tool for evaluation, policy-making and regulation for urban socio-economic system management concerning structure and efficiency at urban levels.     

四川遂宁现代生态田园城市建设的研究

生态田园城市是现代城市的发展目标,已成为我国城市建设的热点.现代生态田园城市建设的关键在于建立城市生态基础设施系统,为城市可持续发展和营造宜居环境提供生态系统服务.遂宁现代生态田园城市规划将生态基础设施规划、产业发展规划、社会公共服务设施规划"三规合一",营造一个生态安全健康、生产低碳高效、生活安康富裕,社会公平和谐的美丽新城市.     

Assessing sustainable development in urban areas using cognitive mapping and MCDA

As interest in sustainability-related issues has increased over recent years, so too has urban sustainability risen to the fore, in academic, practitioner, and policymaking circles alike. Urban sustainability requires a balance between environmental concerns, the economy, and social development in urban areas. However, over the years, there has been an exponential increase in urban density, accompanied by increased economic activity and high levels of consumption, which have hindered urban planning and made the sustainable management of urban areas more difficult. It has therefore become increasingly necessary to combine the interests of the various stakeholders involved in – or affected by – urban planning measures, in order to achieve a balance between their needs, those of the environment and future generations, and the need for economic development. Sustainability evaluation models can in this sense be considered a baseline condition for sustainable development. However, most existing evaluation systems present limitations in terms of criteria identification and the calculation of the respective trade-offs. To address these issues, the current study aims to combine cognitive mapping and the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) to prioritize the determinants of sustainable development in urban areas. The advantages and limitations of our proposal are also analyzed.     

城市规划与城市可持续发展

城市可持续发展是人类全面实施可持续发展战略的一个重要方面，它有其特定的内涵。城市规划是实施城市可持续发展战略的有效工具，在城市规划中引入可持续发展理论是引导城市可持续发展的重要一环。以可持续发展为原则的城市规划应突出其未来导向性、环境导向性、社会导向性的特点，文章就其含义及实现途径进行了分析和探讨。     

北京城市热岛的定量监测及规划模拟研究

为定量地评估北京城市热岛现状并预测未来北京城市热岛发展趋势,分别采用气温资料、遥感资料和城市规划资料进行了研究分析。对北京20个气象台站按照台站距离城市中心的距离划分为远郊、近郊和城市三类,分别计算三种类型站点经过海拔订正后的年平均气温,利用1971-2012年城市站和远郊站的年平均气温差值估算北京气温热岛的时间变化;利用1987-2012年的NOAA/AVHRR和Landsat-TM两种不同分辨率的卫星资料,采用定量化的指标--地表热岛强度和热岛比例指数分别估算了不同时期北京地区和城六区热岛强度和范围,并对北京平原地区的城市热岛状况进行了评估;利用2020年的北京城市规划土地利用资料,结合2008年的城市热岛现状监测结果对2020年的北京热岛状况进行了模拟分析。研究结果表明,北京城市的气温热岛与遥感监测地表热岛在时间变化趋势上具有一致性,不同分辨率卫星资料监测地表热岛在时空分布上也具有一致性。其中1971-2012年,以年平均气温计算的北京城市热岛强度增温率为0.33℃·（10 a）-1,近5年（2008-2012）平均热岛为1.12℃。遥感监测结果显示1987-2001年北京地区的热岛持续增强,2001年之后由于北京申奥的成功进行了大面积的旧城改造和绿化,使得城市热岛强度和范围在2004年和2008年有所降低,2008年之后城市热岛继续向东、南和北方向扩展,并出现了中心城区热岛与通州、顺义、大兴、昌平热岛连成片的趋势,到2012年城六区热岛面积百分比已从1990年的31%增加到77%。由热岛比例指数确定的北京各区县热岛强度排名前三分别是城区、海淀和丰台,延庆县最低。对2020年城市规划图热岛模拟结果显示北京热岛已由“摊大饼”演变为“中心＋周边分散”模式,中心城区热岛强度和范围明显减弱,周边广大远郊区将出现分散?     

Identifying social attitudes to assist urban energy planning in Leicester

A study of social attitudes to urban energy management strategies has been undertaken as part of a research project aiming to develop an energy planning tool for urban planners. The study used a social survey to predict attitudinal responses to proposed engineering solutions, namely load management, energy efficiency and alternative supply options (renewable energy). The principal influence on attitude formation, which emerges from the literature and this study, appears to be socio-economic conditioning.The results indicate that Leicester citizens are open to alternative energy strategies, such as a willingness to pay additional amounts of money for electricity generated from renewable or sustainable sources and the purchase of low energy appliances. Over half the sample surveyed would pay up to 5% extra for an energy-efficient appliance, and a significant minority would pay extra for 'green' energy. In addition, 73% of respondents are sympathetic to Demand-side Management measures such as interruptible tariffs. The use of 'social group' analysis has proved to be a useful and sensitive tool for the market analysis of energy-related behaviour. In this study, a positive relationship between energy-related attitudes and income is revealed.     

Ecological processes and sustainability

SUMMARY

Ecology has developed from its position as an obscure science to being at the interface of science and public policy. The impact of mankind can be described in ecological terms relating to population size, energy use and non-renewability. Sustainable development needs to be addressed on the basis of knowledge of ecological processes which maintain the environment in a state of change; the processes need to be conserved, not maintained in any particular state. Recent advances in the understanding of ecological processes are reviewed to highlight the potential contribution of this knowledge to the development of a sustainable policy. At the level of the population the significance of considering the extinction risks in the framework of spatio-temporal dynamics is now established indicating opportunities for planning land use more precisely to sustain biodiversity. Whilst the maintenance of habitats is generally the key to the persistence of biodiversity, they must be viewed as ever-changing mosaics within which cycles of succession, best described by Markovian sets of probabilities, are occurring continually. The extent to which these probabilities are distorted will determine whether the ecosystem returns to the same system or moves to a novel one. At the global level, biogeochemical cycles have a certain flexibility in relation to fluxes and stocks, hence pollution must be defined by relating the flow rate of the substance to this flexibility, which often permits the accommodation of anthropogenic perturbations. Non-sustainable processes can be defined in ecological terms, thus providing functional definitions of a sustainable policy and of sustainable development.     

江西生态城市建设及其效益

从工农业生产水平、财政收入、社会发展水平、城乡居民收入水平、森林覆盖率等指标评估宜春市实施生态市建设所取得的实际效益,通过比较现有发展水平与规划指标得出,生态市建设实施十五年以来,宜春市基本达到了规划的经济发展、教育、科技、文化、人口发展控制目标、人民生活提高目标和生态环境控制目标,分析了生态市试点建设中存在的问题,提出了今后生态城市建设的建议。     

Calculation of the minimum ecological water requirement of an urban river system and its deployment: A case study in Beijing central region

The minimum ecological water requirements of an urban river system and water deployment are key elements in integrated water resources planning and urban ecological construction. Based on a review of ecological water requirement calculation methods and considering the different ecological functions of an urban river system, the ecological function method was used in this paper to calculate the components of the ecological water requirements of an urban river. An envelope curve-based method was proposed for assessing the minimum ecological water requirements of an urban river system. Water resources deployment strategies designed to meet the minimum ecological water requirements were described. Then, the minimum ecological water requirements of the urban river system in Beijing central region, selected as a case study, were investigated. The key parameters for assessing the minimum ecological water requirement in the Beijing urban river system were determined. Based on the ecological objectives and the current status of the different urban river systems within the Beijing central region, the minimum ecological water requirements were calculated. Different types of water sources, including rainwater, upstream water, and reclaimed water, were deployed to meet the ecological water requirements for the urban river system in the Beijing central region.     

永定河(北京段)生态修复工程运行管理机制研究

在充分调查永定河生态修复运行管理现状的基础上,以阈值跃迁、适应性管理为指导,对现有运行管理现状及存在问题进行深入分析。研究发现目前运行管理存在缺乏理论指导,管理权责不明晰,资金来源不明确以及生态监测体系、原水买卖平台缺失等问题。为实现运行管理目标,研究提出从构建基于适应性管理的流域委员会管理模式、确定管理机构权责、管理资金配置及建立生态修复管理评估体系4个方面完善运行管理机制,为永定河生态修复工程的运行管理及北方缺水城市的水生态修复工程运行管理提供参考与借鉴。     

基于属性理论的长株潭城市群生态系统健康评价

城市生态系统是一种高度人工化的自然-社会-经济复合生态系统,其健康状况直接影响到城市的可持续发展。针对城市生态系统健康评价标准的不确定性问题,在构建评价指标体系的基础上,提出了基于属性理论的城市生态系统健康评价模型及评价方法。以长株潭城市群为研究区域,运用该模型和方法对其生态系统健康进行了综合评价。评价结果表明：长株潭城市群的生态系统现状属于一般健康类,其中自然生态子系统对区域整体健康状况有较大影响,评价结果与实际情况大体吻合。通过对各子系统层的健康度分析,识别了健康限制因素,并提出了相应的调控措施。采用属性理论方法开展城市生态系统健康评价,能较好地识别系统层综合健康状况和子系统层的健康状况,具有一定的实用价值,其评价结果为促进城市生态建设,有效实施生态系统健康管理提供了科学依据。     

北京城市生态系统的能值动态分析

采用能值理论与分析方法,对北京市1990~2001年间的能值结构动态进行了分析,并采用人均能值、能值密度、生态功能潜力、人口基本承载力、能值自给率、能值货币比率、环境负载率、输入能值比等重要能值指标对该时期北京市城市生态系统的能值状况作了详细分析。研究表明,北京城市生态系统正处于较高发展水平,已基本跨入发达国家水平的行列;但高强度、快速发展给本市带来了巨大的生态环境压力,未来北京的可持续能力建设已势在必行。文章也提出了北京城市生态系统可持续发展能力建设的基本方向。     

Is Scotland sustainable? A the series of indicators of sustainable development

Seven measures of sustainable development for Scotland are examined for the period 1980-1993. These measures are green net national product, genuine savings, ecological footprint, environmental space, human appropriation of net primary production, the index of sustainable economic welfare and the genuine progress indicator. Very different messages concerning sustainable development in Scotland emerge from these measures.     

From local sustainable development towards climate change adaptation: a case study of Serbia

The recent 2014 floods in Serbia highlighted the potential extent of climate-related risks in the region, resulting in more than 30 deaths and more than 30,000 displaced people, with the overall cost of the damage close to €1.5 billion. By the end of this century, Serbia will experience an increase in temperature of up to 4°C and a decrease in summer precipitation of up to 50%. Adaptation to those changes calls for the redefinition of a strategic approach and the integration of climate change challenges into the processes of local sustainable development planning. The objective of this study was to assess current local sustainable development strategies (LSDSs) and highlight some of the threats and opportunities which may help or hinder the adaptation process, the evaluation of development priorities, coordination mechanisms at the local level and risk management practice. Based on climate trends and vulnerability level, 20 of the potentially most vulnerable municipalities in Serbia were selected. The analysis shows that although local sustainable development planning still lacks cross-sectorial planning practice and risk management plans and measures, and does not yet recognize vulnerable sectors as climate sensitive, it can still serve as a platform for adaptation planning. Based on the assessed LSDS framework, the most suitable approach to the development of an adaption strategy is the vulnerability-based approach. At the same time, the potential for initiating adaptation planning is recognized in the utilization of already established networks with external and international donors and planning experts, joined county or regional adaptation planning, and cross-border collaboration.     

Assessment and management of urbanization-induced ecological risks

The urban ecological risk incurred during the processes of urbanization has been constantly accumulating, creating a severe challenge for China to achieve sustainable urban development. At present, research on systematic evaluation of urban ecological risks is still inadequate, especially at an urban ecosystem level. In this special issue, we use Xiamen City as an example to identify the sources and receptors of urban ecological risks, to develop a methodology system of urban ecological risk assessment, and to propose a method for the management of urban ecological risks. This special issue contains 11 research articles resulting from a comprehensive research project funded by China’s National Natural Science Foundation. The innovations reported in this special issue include a framework of urban ecological risk assessment and a standardized procedure for carrying out urban ecological risk assessment using multiple stressors and endpoints.     

A concise review of ecological risk assessment for urban ecosystem application associated with rapid urbanization processes

ABSTRACT

Urban ecological risk (UER) caused by rapid urbanization means potential threat to urban ecosystem structure, pattern and services. The scales of ecological risk assessment (ERA) have been expanded from individual organisms to watersheds and regions. The types of stressor range from chemical to physical, biological and natural events. However, the application of ERA in urban ecosystems is relatively new. Here, we summarize the progress of urban ERA and propose an explicit framework to illumine future ERA based on UER identification, analysis, characterization, modeling, projection and early warning and management. The summary includes six urban ERA-relevant methods: weight-of-evidence (WoE), procedure for ecological tiered assessment of risks (PETAR), relative risk model (RRM), multimedia, multi-pathway, multi-receptor risk assessment (3MRA), landscape analysis and ecological models. Furthermore, we review critical cases of urban ERA in landscape ecology, soil, air, water and solid waste. Based on the Internet of Things (IoT) and cloud computing, an urban ERA management platform integrates various urban ERA methodologies that can be developed to provide better implementation strategies of UER for urban ecosystem managers and stakeholders. We develop a conceptual model of urban ERA based on the urban characteristics in China. The future applications of urban ERA include uncertainty analysis using Monte Carlo techniques on the basis of geospatial techniques and comprehensive urban ERA using nonlinear models or process models.     

Sustainable development strategies for China's Du Jiang Yan Water Resources Project

China's Du Jiang Yan Irrigation Project, dating back to 256 BC, is one of the world's earliest water resources projects. Although it has been benefiting the Sichuan Basin area for over 2000 years, it is facing increasing problems due to ecological deterioration, over-exploitation from local industries and agriculture, suboptimal resource allocation arising from supply and demand mismatches, and an aging infrastructure. The traditional water resources development model is no longer appropriate for current and future needs of the area. Therefore, a sustainable development framework is envisioned in which population, economy and environment coexist in harmony. Within this framework, major strategies, such as construction and renovation of infrastructure, promotion of water conserving irrigation through non-engineering measures, pollution control and ecological improvements, restructuring of management entities and exploration of new funding sources, are proposed. An evaluation system is also introduced to assess the degree of sustainability and to monitor progress towards a high level of sustainable development.     

A review of ecological mitigation measures in UK environmental statements with respect to sustainable development

SUMMARY

The European and UK legislation on environmental assessment (EA), as well as requiring assessment of significant ecological effects, also requires development proponents to recommend mitigation measures for adverse impacts.

Drawing on a review of proposed ecological mitigation measures in 194 environmental statements (ES) for UK development proposals, this paper highlights problems with the current legislation in ensuring that ecological impacts are mitigated effectively, with a view to sustainable development.

The review reveals confusion about the extent to which ecological mitigation is required. First, there is no objective basis for deciding which potentially adverse impacts should be mitigated. Proposed mitigation measures do not always relate directly to the ecological impacts identified in ES and there is a high risk of residual adverse effects. Second, there is no generally accepted method for evaluating the effectiveness of proposed mitigation measures, despite a clear recommendation from the UK's Department of the Environment (DOE, 1989) that an ‘assessment of the likely effectiveness’ of mitigation measures should be included in ES. Methods which can be used to evaluate the likely feasibility, costs and redistributional effects of ecological mitigation measures in EA are needed. Some of the factors which should be taken into account are considered in this paper.