Air pollution regulations new to Zambia

Environmental regulations in Zambia address all aspects of life and the authorities who are assigned to enforce them seem to be taking a positive approach towards restructuring the run-down environment. Although for a long time nature and the environment has almost been neglected, the situation is not irreversible. This paper examines air pollution problems; these apparently are more difficult to control in the country. Issues covered are those requiring urgent attention and are referred to in the newly introduced law against pollution.     

Water pollution — A major crisis in Nepal

Summary The author, a native of Nepal, paints a depressing picture of the levels of water pollution currently suffered in that country. He itemizes a number of recommendations to improve the situation.     

A review of the medical evidence for a link between air pollution and asthma

Recently the possible link between air pollution and asthma has been at the centre of much political, public and media attention. This concern has been fuelled by evidence of increasing respiratory ill health, especially in children, and the search for an explanation has focused upon environmental pollution, particularly emissions from road transport. Paradoxically this concern has not been induced by new findings that address the fundamental question of the importance of current levels of air pollution in the causation, severity and responses in asthma. Asthma is predominantly an allergic disease of the human airways. These airways are known to become inflamed in response to exposure to a host of environmental factors. This paper reviews evidence of a link between pollution and asthma and examines the role of pollution in the expression of asthma. In more than 90 percent of children in the UK with asthma the major allergen is a protein particle secreted by house dust mites and this is likely to be the cause of the disease in most sufferers. However, if air pollution has a role it must be expressed in one of three ways. First, certain pollutants acting together, singly, or with other environmental triggers, may cause changes in airways and cause symptoms in people already suffering from asthma. Secondly, air pollution may be causing the initiation of asthma by a mechanism independent of other factors. Thirdly, exposure to pollutants may act in combination with allergens to initiate the asthmatic tendency. The medical evidence for each of these possible roles will be discussed. It is crucial that answers are forthcoming to these questions in order that effective and timely air pollution control strategies may be introduced.This paper was delivered at the Global Forum '94 Academic Conference.     

Evolving policies to regulate pollution from animal feeding operations

Due to concentrations of animals at large facilities, animal feeding operations (AFOs) have emerged as a major potential source of water pollution. The federal government regulates concentrated animal feeding operations under its point-source pollution permitting regulations. A major determinant of whether an operation must apply for a permit is the number of animals at an individual lot or facility. This paper examines federal mandatory controls and voluntary guidelines that seek to reduce contaminant pollution from AFOs. Land treatment practices are delineated due to their importance in reducing the injurious by-products of agricultural production. An evaluation of proposed revisions to federal regulations on confined animal feeding operations suggests they diverge from their goal of controlling water pollution. Federal regulations focus on the size of operation and amount of manure governed by the permitting process to the exclusion of other criteria related to the impairment of water quality. Given the uncertainties about the amount of pollution from AFOs, lack of enforcement of existing regulations, localization of problems, and possible alternatives for addressing the pollution, more demanding federal regulations may not form an appropriate response.     

River pollution from non-point sources: a new simplified method of assessment

Assessment of the pollution of water bodies from non-point sources is a complex data- and time-consuming task. The potential non-point pollution index (PNPI), is a new tool designed to assess the global pressure exerted on rivers and other surface water bodies by different land uses. The main feature of PNPI is the wide availability of its input data. Very detailed input maps, often lacking over many areas, are not needed for PNPI calculation. As a consequence of the input data used, the modelling of physical reality and of processes is heavily simplified. The authors counterbalanced such a simplification using an 'expert system' approach. The system bypasses the accurate representation of the physical reality to assess globally the pollution potential of different land uses according to the judgement of scientists. The scientific community proposes many models for depicting the dynamics of pollutants coming from diffuse sources. Most of them can be grouped into two broad categories: statistical models and physically based models. PNPI belongs to neither of the above-mentioned groups. PNPI is a GIS-based, watershed-scale tool designed to inform decision makers and public opinion about the potential environmental impacts of different land management scenarios. PNPI applies the multicriteria technique to pollutant dynamics and water quality. The pressure exerted on water bodies by diffuse pollution coming from land units is expressed as a function of three indicators: land use, run-off and distance from the river network. They are calculated from land use data, geological maps and a digital elevation model (DEM). The weights given to different land uses and to the three indicators were set according to experts' evaluations and allow calculation of the value of the PNPI for each node of a grid representing the watershed; the higher the PNPI of the cell, the greater the potential impact on the river network. The output of the calculation is presented in the form of maps that highlight areas that are more likely to produce pollution. Last, possibilities, strategies and results of the validation of the PNPI are described. In the authors' view, the explicit link between land use and potential pollution on which PNPI is based, together with its high communication potential, make it particularly interesting for a participatory and integrated approach to land management and environmental protection.     

Measuring neighbourhood air pollution: the case of Seattle's international district

Current US regulatory air quality monitoring networks measure ambient levels of pollutants and cannot capture the effects of mobile sources at the micro-scale. Despite the fact that overall air quality has been getting better, more vulnerable populations (children, the elderly, minorities and the poor) continue to suffer from traffic-related air pollution. As development intensifies in urban areas, more people are exposed to road-related air pollution. However, the only consideration given to air quality, if any, is based on ambient measures. This paper uses an inexpensive, portable Particle Soot Absorption Photometer (PSAP) to measure Black Carbon (BC) emissions, a surrogate for diesel fuels emissions, in Seattle's International District. With the aid of a GPS receiver, street-level BC data were geocoded in real space-time. It was found that pollution levels differed substantially across the study area. The results show the need for street-level air pollution monitoring, revisions in current land use and transportation policies, and air quality planning practice.     

Fuzzy-based wastewater quality indices for pollution classification: a case study in the United Arab Emirates

This paper presents a fuzzy logic-based tool for assessing the pollution concentration of effluents generated by various industrial and commercial activities. The study proposes a fuzzy overall pollution compliance index (FOPCI) (range 0–100) to classify the wastewater discharged from various types of properties present in Ajman, United Arab Emirates. The work mainly focused on three types of pollution that can occur at the inlets of the wastewater treatment plant of Ajman, due to discharge of industrial and commercial effluents, namely pH pollution, salt pollution, and organic pollution. The proposed FOPCI integrates six characteristics, namely pH, Cl^?, SO₄ ^2?, conductivity, chemical oxygen demand (COD), and fats, oils, and greases (FOG) values into a readily understandable scale. The FOPCI is developed by using the Fuzzy Inference System Toolbox available in MATLAB in two steps, in which during the first step, three sub-indices, namely fuzzy pH compliance index, fuzzy salt compliance index, and fuzzy organic compliance index are developed. It is then processed in the second stage to develop the FOPCI. Fuzzy rules are used to classify effluents quality into six categories based on the concentration of pollutant in the effluent, namely “Excellent Quality”, “Good Quality”, “Acceptable Quality”, “Moderately Polluting”, “Highly Polluting”, and “Extremely Polluting”. This linguistic classification using fuzzy logic will be helpful as a decision support system to provide an outline for the prioritization of plans for wastewater management based on the values of the indices developed.     

衡水市区大气污染经济损失估算

衡水市区的大气污染对人体健康、农业、建筑材料造成的经济损失是巨大的。运用修正的人力资本法、生产率变动法、成果参照法等环境经济学方法,计算出衡水市区1996-2000年各年的大气污染经济损失。以2000年为例,衡水市区大气污染经济损失为1.23亿元,相当于研究区域每人损失510元,其中大气污染引起的人体健康经济损失为12079万元,农业经济损失85.4万元,建筑材料经济损失175万元。由于认识、数据搜集、技术上的原因,本研究给出的经济损失数据只是一个半定量的供宏观思考的结论,可看作是实际损失的下限值。     

Five-wheel framework for system-based monitoring of heavy metal pollution in rivers

Sectorial approach for monitoring heavy metal pollution in rivers has failed to report realistic pollution status and associated ecological and human health risks. The increasing spread of heavy metals from different sources and emerging risks to human and environmental health call for reexamining heavy metal pollution monitoring frameworks. Also, the sources, spread, and load of heavy metals in the environment have changed significantly over time, requiring consequent modification in the monitoring frameworks. Therefore, studies on heavy metal monitoring in rivers conducted in the last decade were evaluated for experimental designs, research frameworks, and data presentations. Most studies (∼99%) (i) lacked inclusiveness of all environmental compartments; (ii) focused on “one pollutant – one/two compartment” or sometimes “one pollutant – one compartment – one effect” approach; and (iii) remained “data-rich but information poor.” An ecological approach with integrative system thinking is proposed to develop a holistic approach for monitoring river pollution. It is visualized that heavy metal monitoring, risk analyses, and water management must incorporate tracking pollutants in different environmental compartments of a river (water, sediment, and floodplain/bank soil) and consider correlating it with riverbank land use. The systems-based pollution monitoring and assessment studies will reveal the critical factors that drive heavy metals pollutant movement in ecosystems and associated potential risks to the environment, wildlife, and humans. Also, water quality and pollution indexing tools would help better communicate complex pollution data and associated risks among all stakeholders. Therefore, integrating systems approaches in scientific- and policy-based tools would help sustainably manage the health of rivers, wildlife, and humans.     

Controlling industrial pollution in the developing world

Industrial pollution has become a serious problem in many developing countries during the past two decades. Support for regulation of industrial pollution has remained lukewarm from many policymakers, despite research suggesting large benefits from pollution reduction even in very poor countries. Since 1993, a World Bank research team on the environment has worked in collaboration with pollution control agencies to understand existing regulatory practices, industry's environmental performance, and pollution abatement costs in developing countries. The researchers'ongoing work has already produced a large number of publicly-available research papers and datasets, and is providing the Bank team with considerable expertise and insights into the design of effective pollution control policies.     

The relationship between coastal tourism,sea pollution and public health: A case study from Turkey

Summary Among the different impacts of coastal tourism on the environment, the effect of tourism on public health has special importance. The large increase in population during the high season results usually in an increase in the amount of waste water produced. If the necessary infrastructure for handling these wastes is not available, the sea is polluted, causing serious problems.To investigate the effects of sea pollution on the public, a health survey was conducted in Bodrum and Çesme, the two most important tourist coastal resorts of Turkey. A questionnaire about the health problems which tourists suffer, as well as their culinary habits, swimming habits,etc. was distributed. At the same time the pollution level in the sea was determined in the form of coliform concentration. As a result it is shown that those swimming in polluted waters suffer more from gastro-intestinal diseases than others. Furthermore, foreigners (usually Scandinavians) and children are proved to be more susceptible to pollution, possibly due to their lack of immunity.Dr Günay Kocasoy is presently Associate Professor in the Department of Chemical Engineering at Bogaziçi University. Her fields of interest are in environmental engineering, water pollution and marine sciences. She obtained a BS degree in Chemical Engineering from Robert College, Istanbul, Turkey, and subsequently a BA in Industrial Administration from Franklin University, Columbus, Ohio, USA. Following more recent studies she possesses both an MS and a PhD in Marine Sciences from Istanbul University.     

Toward quantifying water pollution abatement in response to installing buffers on crop land

The scientific research literature is reviewed (i) for evidence of how much reduction in nonpoint source pollution can be achieved by installing buffers on crop land, (ii) to summarize important factors that can affect this response, and (iii) to identify remaining major information gaps that limit our ability to make probable estimates. This review is intended to clarify the current scientific foundation of the USDA and similar buffer programs designed in part for water pollution abatement and to highlight important research needs. At this time, research reports are lacking that quantify a change in pollutant amounts (concentration and/or load) in streams or lakes in response to converting portions of cropped land to buffers. Most evidence that such a change should occur is indirect, coming from site-scale studies of individual functions of buffers that act to retain pollutants from runoff: (1) reduce surface runoff from fields, (2) filter surface runoff from fields, (3) filter groundwater runoff from fields, (4) reduce bank erosion, and (5) filter stream water. The term filter is used here to encompass the range of specific processes that act to reduce pollutant amounts in runoff flow. A consensus of experimental research on functions of buffers clearly shows that they can substantially limit sediment runoff from fields, retain sediment and sediment-bound pollutants from surface runoff, and remove nitrate N from groundwater runoff. Less certain is the magnitude of these functions compared to the cultivated crop condition that buffers would replace within the context of buffer installation programs. Other evidence suggests that buffer installation can substantially reduce bank erosion sources of sediment under certain circumstances. Studies have yet to address the degree to which buffer installation can enhance channel processes that remove pollutants from stream flow. Mathematical models offer an alternative way to develop estimates for water quality changes in response to buffer installation. Numerous site conditions and buffer design factors have been identified that can determine the magnitude of each buffer function. Accurate models must be able to account for and integrate these functions and factors over whole watersheds. At this time, only pollutant runoff and surface filtration functions have been modeled to this extent. Capability is increasing as research data is produced, models become more comprehensive, and new techniques provide means to describe variable conditions across watersheds. A great deal of professional judgment is still required to extrapolate current knowledge of buffer functions into broadly accurate estimates of water pollution abatement in response to buffer installation on crop land. Much important research remains to be done to improve this capability. The greatest need is to produce direct quantitative evidence of this response. Such data would confirm the hypothesis and enable direct testing of watershed-scale prediction models as they become available. Further study of individual pollution control functions is also needed, particularly to generate comparative evidence for how much they can be manipulated through buffer installation and management.     

Impacts on air pollution in urban areas

Environmental management involves controlling various forms of pollution to levels that do not pose a threat to the health of the people and the environment in general. This paper presents a framework to analyze sources of local air pollution in cities. Using an OLS model, an investigation is performed of the relationship among the concentrations of air pollutants [more precisely, concentrations of sulfur dioxide (SO₂), dust, nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), carbon oxide (CO) and ozone (O₃)], economic activities, and meteorology. Time series analysis leads to a model, that explains a high degree of the variance in the air pollution data. The model is applied to daily time series from three measurement stations in innsbruck, Austria. Estimation results of the model generally fit with the expected relations. Space heating influences SO₂, dust, and NO, while NO₂ levels are primarily affected by traffic. These results also indicate interdependent relations among the pollutants NO, NO₂, O₃, and CO; O₃ levels depend on temperature and sunshine.     

Inducing pollution prevention adoption: effectiveness of the 33/50 voluntary environmental program

The Environmental Protection Agency has encouraged voluntary efforts at pollution prevention by facilities through participation in voluntary environmental programs (VEPs) such as the 33/50 program to reduce toxic releases. This paper examines the effectiveness of the 33/50 program in the adoption of pollution prevention practices and disentangles the effect of adoption from that of program participation on releases of 33/50 chemicals. Using facility-specific panel data and controlling for the endogeneity of program participation and pollution prevention adoption, we find that program participants were 38% more likely to adopt pollution prevention practices than non-participants. Program participants who adopted pollution prevention practices reduced their 33/50 releases by 52% compared to facilities that neither participated nor adopted pollution prevention. This indicates that VEPs that emphasize pollution prevention can play a complementary role in reducing toxic releases.     

Economic-environmental modeling of point source pollution in Jefferson County,Alabama, USA

This paper uses an integrated economic-environmental model to assess the point source pollution from major industries in Jefferson County, Northern Alabama. Industrial expansion generates employment, income, and tax revenue for the public sector; however, it is also often associated with the discharge of chemical pollutants. Jefferson County is one of the largest industrial counties in Alabama that experienced smog warnings and ambient ozone concentration, 1996-1999. Past studies of chemical discharge from industries have used models to assess the pollution impact of individual plants. This study, however, uses an extended Input-Output (I-O) economic model with pollution emission coefficients to assess direct and indirect pollutant emission for several major industries in Jefferson County. The major findings of the study are: (a) the principal emission by the selected industries are volatile organic compounds (VOC) and these contribute to the ambient ozone concentration; (b) the direct and indirect emissions are significantly higher than the direct emission by some industries, indicating that an isolated analysis will underestimate the emission by an industry; (c) while low emission coefficient industries may suggest industry choice they may also emit the most hazardous chemicals. This study is limited by the assumptions made, and the data availability, however it provides a useful analytical tool for direct and cumulative emission estimation and generates insights on the complexity in choice of industries.     

Optimal nonpoint source pollution control strategies for a reservoir watershed in Taiwan

The purpose of this study is to develop a model for optimal nonpoint source pollution control for the Fei-Tsui Reservoir watershed in Northern Taiwan. Several structural best management practices (BMPs) are selected to treat stormwater runoff. The complete model consists of two interacting components: an optimization model based on discrete differential dynamic programming (DDDP) and a zero-dimensional reservoir water quality model. A predefined procedure is used to locate suitable sites for construction of various selected BMPs in the watershed. In the optimization model, the objective function is to find the best combination of BMP type and placement, which minimizes the total construction and operation, maintenance, and repair (OMR) costs of the BMPs. The constraints are the water quality standards for total phosphorus (TP) and total suspended solids (TSS) concentrations in the reservoir. A zero-dimensional reservoir water quality model of the Vollenweider type is embedded in the optimization framework to simulate pollutant concentrations in Fei-Tsui Reservoir. The resulting optimal cost and benefit of water quality improvement are depicted by the model-derived trade-off curves. The modeling framework developed in the present study could be used as an efficient tool for planning a watershed-wide implementation of BMPs for mitigating stormwater pollution impact on the receiving water bodies.     

Mortality and morbidity benefits of air pollution (SO2 and PM10) absorption attributable to woodland in Britain

Forests in Britain produce social and environmental benefits, in addition to marketable timber outputs. One such non-market benefit is the reduction in air pollution, linked to health impacts (mortality and morbidity). This study assesses the benefits of SO2 and PM10 absorption by trees in terms of extending life expectancy of the population and reducing hospital admissions. Working at a resolution of 1 km2 with woodland over 2 ha, it is estimated that, for Britain as a whole, woodland saves between 5 and 7 deaths, that would otherwise have been brought forward, and between 4 and 6 hospital admissions each year. The economic value of the health effect of woodland is estimated to be at least 900,000 pounds Sterling per year. Smaller areas of woodland, often located closer to population, sometimes strategically planted close to pollution sources, will generate additional air pollution absorption benefits to those estimated here. Researching such benefits would require more detailed data than is available at present for a national study. However, the health benefits of woodland are relatively small in comparison to other non-market forestry benefits.     

Indicators for hydraulic and pollution retention assessment of stormwater infiltration basins

Infiltration basins are frequently used for stormwater management even though their long-term evolution is not well understood nor controlled. The two main problems encountered are clogging which compromises the hydraulic capacity of the basin and possible contamination of underlying soil and groundwater. This paper defines a framework for evaluating the hydraulic and pollution retention performance of infiltration basins in the long-term. Sets of context and performance indicators are proposed, along with two complementary modes of evaluation. Context indicators are identified in order to define the clogging and contamination states of the basins. Performance indicators are developed to assess several aspects of basin performance: drainage duration, overflow frequency, predictive life period, particle filtration and pollution trapping. Modes of evaluation include field investigation and long-term simulation modeling. Indicators are tested on five infiltration basins in suburban Lyon (France). Both context indicators and hydraulic performance indicators are reliable and their evaluation is representative of basin behavior. This is not the case for pollution retention performance indicators. Their assessment is difficult because of data quality. Field data has high uncertainties. The model is satisfactory for the hydraulic simulation and the evolution of clogging. Improvements are necessary for pollution flow simulation and the acquisition of better quality data is required.     

Rural industries and water pollution in China

Water pollution from small rural industries is a serious problem throughout China. Over half of all river sections monitored for water quality are rated as being unsafe for human contact, and this pollution is estimated to cost several per cent of GDP. While China has some of the toughest environmental protection laws in the world, the implementation of these laws in rural areas is not effective. This paper explains the reasons for this implementation gap. It argues that the factors that have underpinned the economic success of rural industry are precisely the same factors that cause water pollution from rural industry to remain such a serious problem in China. This means that the control of rural water pollution is not simply a technical problem of designing a more appropriate governance system, or finding better policy instruments or more funding. Instead, solutions lie in changes in the model that underpins rural development in China.