Socio-environmental consideration of phosphorus flows in the urban sanitation chain of contrasting cities

Understanding how cities can transform organic waste into a valuable resource is critical to urban sustainability. The capture and recycling of phosphorus (P), and other essential nutrients, from human excreta is particularly important as an alternative organic fertilizer source for agriculture. However, the complex set of socio-environmental factors influencing urban human excreta management is not yet sufficiently integrated into sustainable P research. Here, we synthesize information about the pathways P can take through urban sanitation systems along with barriers and facilitators to P recycling across cities. We examine five case study cities by using a sanitation chains approach: Accra, Ghana; Buenos Aires, Argentina; Beijing, China; Baltimore, USA; and London, England. Our cross-city comparison shows that London and Baltimore recycle a larger percentage of P from human excreta back to agricultural lands than other cities, and that there is a large diversity in socio-environmental factors that affect the patterns of recycling observed across cities. Our research highlights conditions that may be “necessary but not sufficient” for P recycling, including access to capital resources. Path dependencies of large sanitation infrastructure investments in the Global North contrast with rapidly urbanizing cities in the Global South, which present opportunities for alternative sanitation development pathways. Understanding such city-specific social and environmental barriers to P recycling options could help address multiple interacting societal objectives related to sanitation and provide options for satisfying global agricultural nutrient demand.

     

Challenges of small protected areas in urban cities: a case study of Okhla Bird Sanctuary,India

Protected areas have been earmarked throughout the world for the purpose of conserving the biodiversity. The protected areas are facing serious threats due to rapid urban growth, especially in the developing countries like India. The current threats and impacts of urbanization on the Okhla Bird Sanctuary (Delhi, India) have been presented in this paper as a case in point. Uncontrolled urbanization and the lack of policy implementation have been identified as one of the major contributors to incessant biodiversity loss in India and other countries. In addition, a possible management framework for a smaller protected area in an urban setting is presented in brief.     

Local air quality management as a risk management process: assessing, managing and remediating the risk of exceeding an air quality objective in Great Britain

Air quality is managed in Great Britain via an effects-based, risk management process designed to provide a dynamic solution to public health issues associated with elevated concentrations of seven specified air pollutants. This paper is concerned with an examination and evaluation of the process of Local Air Quality Management (LAQM) in Great Britain from the late 1980s to date as a risk management process. The statutory basis of LAQM process is provided by the Environment Act 1995. The Act provides a framework in which national and local actions are required to identify and remediate areas of poor air quality. Within this framework, the implementation of the process at national and local levels is considered, leading to an identification and assessment of risks in the formulation and implementation of air quality management policy and practice. Local Authorities began the process of Review and Assessment in 1999 and the first round of the process concluded in 2001. Following this, some 129 Local Authorities declared one or more Air Quality Management Areas (AQMAs). The Review and Assessment elements of the framework were subjected to an evaluation in 2001 and the essential elements of it were confirmed as fit for purpose. The evaluation led to a confirmation of the process of LAQM but also a simplification based on the experience of Round 1. Now, a two step process is required comprising of an Updating and Screening Assessment and, where a risk of exceeding an Air Quality Objective (AQO) is identified, a Detailed Assessment follows. The Government has identified a time scale for Review and Assessment through to 2010 and also introduced the requirement of a regular Progress Report in order that a Local Authority is able to address routine matters of air quality management. The risks inherent in epidemiological or scientific uncertainty are factored into the LAQM process at an early stage of the process and, by identifying the risks and subjecting them to regular review, the process provides a 'level playing field' across spatial and temporal scales. Whilst the process of LAQM described in this paper has been developed for Great Britain, the generic elements of the process are applicable to other countries challenged by air pollution problems which require both national and local action to resolve them.     

Comparative analysis of land use and lake water quality in rural and urban zones of south Chennai, India

Chennai city, the capital of Tamil Nadu state in South India, has been experiencing rapid expansion since the last two decades, resulting in major changes in land use and degradation of wetlands. Small lakes in the peri-urban areas face severe strain on their environment due to transition of rural to urban conditions, leaving at stake their aquatic health and intended uses. This paper studies the role of urbanization and land use changes in the water quality of peri-urban (Rajakilpakkam) and rural (Vengaivasal) lakes. Water samples were collected and analysed for temperature, total dissolved solids, major ions, nutrients and biological oxygen demand as per standard methods. The temperature, pH and biological oxygen demand did not differ between lakes, while total dissolved solids (p = 0.008), alkalinity (p = 0.000), total hardness (p = 0.001) and phosphate (p = 0.000) were significantly higher in Rajakilpakkam. Seasonal and spatial variations in water quality between the lakes showed the direct impact of rapid and uncontrolled growth of built-up areas in the catchment area, in enhancing waste water inflows with inorganic salts and nutrients in Rajakilpakkam lake compared with Vengaivasal lake. Urbanization of the catchment and encroachments in Rajakilpakkam lake tends to reduce the social interdependence of lake and community and promote disuse, leading to decline in water quality. The impending environmental costs caused by urbanization to these lakes will only be tackled, if the main issues of domestic and industrial discharges and encroachments are addressed properly.     

A systematic review of the relationship between objective measurements of the urban environment and psychological distress

The urban environment has become the main place that people live and work. As a result it can have profound impacts on our health. While much of the literature has focused on physical health, less attention has been paid to the possible psychological impacts of the urban environment. In order to understand the potential relevance and importance of the urban environment to population mental health, we carried out a systematic review to examine the associations between objective measurements of the urban environment and psychological distress, independently of the individual's subjective perceptions of the urban environment.11 peer-reviewed papers published in English between January 2000 and February 2012 were identified. All studies were cross-sectional. Despite heterogeneity in study design, the overall findings suggested that the urban environment has measurable associations with psychological distress, including housing with deck access, neighbourhood quality, the amount of green space, land-use mix, industry activity and traffic volume. The evidence supports the need for development of interventions to improve mental health through changing the urban environment. We also conclude that new methods for measuring the urban environment objectively are needed which are meaningful to planners. In particular, future work should look at the spatial-temporal dynamic of the urban environment measured in Geographical Information System (GIS) in relation to psychological distress.     

Water quality of reclaimed water from treated urban wastewater in Chaobai River Basin,North China

The utilization of reclaimed water could be an efficient tool to alleviate water scarcity, especially for dry river augmentation. However, it is crucial to monitor water quality to ensure safety to human health and to avoid negative effects on the environment. Reclaimed water samples were collected bimonthly from May to November in 2010 in Chaobai River, and the physiochemical parameters were determined. The main results are as follows: The parameters exceeding the threshold value of the water guidelines are mainly nutrition related to nitrogen and phosphorus, which are known to increase the risk of eutrophication in surface waters. Additionally, nitrite and nitrate can be detrimental to human health. The majority of the parameters have a peaking concentration in May, whereas others either show significant temporal variation over the entire period or remain relatively constant in all four months. Correlation analysis shows that some parameters (pH, T and B) have no significant correlation with others, whereas significant positive correlation was found for Sr with EC and TDS, for Cl with TDS, for SiO₂ with TP and for NO₃–N with TN and a significant negative correlation between SO₄ and Ba. According to principal component analysis, 60.108% of the total data is represented by dominant solutes, and the second principal component with a percentage of 31.876 comprises parameters related to nitrogen. Subsequent cluster analysis of parameters identified four groups, which represent different compositions, and samples in May differ from others.     

Water quality of reclaimed water from treated urban wastewater in Chaobai River Basin,North China

The utilization of reclaimed water could be an efficient tool to alleviate water scarcity,especially for dry river augmentation.However,it is crucial to monitor water quality to ensure safety to human health and to avoid negative effects on the environment.Reclaimed water samples were collected bimonthly from May to November in 2010 in Chaobai River,and the physiochemical parameters were determined.The main results are as follows:The parameters exceeding the threshold value of the water guidelines are mainly nutrition related to nitrogen and phosphorus,which are known to increase the risk of eutrophication in surface waters.Additionally,nitrite and nitrate can be detrimental to human health.The majority of the parameters have a peaking concentration in May,whereas others either show significant temporal variation over the entire period or remain relatively constant in all four months.Correlation analysis shows that some parameters(pH,T and B) have no significant correlation with others,whereas significant positive correlation was found for Sr with EC and TDS,for CI with TDS,for Si02 with TP and for NO3-N with TN and a significant negative correlation between SO4 and Ba.According to principal component analysis,60.108%of the total data is represented by dominant solutes,and the second principal component with a percentage of 31.876 comprises parameters related to nitrogen.Subsequent cluster analysis of parameters identified four groups,which represent different compositions,and samples in May differ from others.     

Exploring quality of life concerns in the context of sustainable rural development at the local level: a Greek case study

Quality of life concerns in rural development planning and management processes at the local level need to be identified and evaluated through participatory bottom–up approaches. This paper provides an overview of the main issues related to the quality of life concept in the context of rural sustainable development and discusses the need for operational governance models in order to identify, evaluate, and incorporate in action planning quality of life concerns at the local level. Quality of life issues are explored through a governance model applied to a rural Greek case study as part of a sustainable development planning and management process.     

The valuation of wetland conservation in an urban/peri urban watershed

This study estimates the social benefits of wetland conservation in the Credit River watershed, located in an urban/peri urban area in Southern Ontario, Canada. A stated preference approach was employed to value wetland conservation programs which ranged from retaining the existing wetlands to restoring various levels of acres of wetlands over the 2009–2020 period. A total of 1,407 households completed an internet-based survey which presented trade-offs in binary choice scenarios framed as referenda. Responses were analyzed using various models, one of which was a latent class analysis which segmented respondents into three classes. This econometric approach uncovered significant preference heterogeneity for wetland conservation. Assignment of respondents to the classes suggested that about one-third of the sample was willing to pay small amounts to retain the existing wetlands. An additional third was willing to pay several hundred dollars a year for retention and small positive amounts for additional restoration. The final third were apparently willing to pay considerable sums for retention, but lesser amounts for additional restoration. However, further analysis revealed that respondents in this third class largely constituted yea-sayers. These results suggest caution in interpreting associated economic valuation estimates and highlight the importance of attempting to understand hypothetical bias in wetland and other such valuation studies.     

Measuring combined exposure to environmental pressures in urban areas: an air quality and noise pollution assessment approach

This study presents a methodological scheme developed to provide a combined air and noise pollution exposure assessment based on measurements from personal portable monitors. Provided that air and noise pollution are considered in a co-exposure approach, they represent a significant environmental hazard to public health. The methodology is demonstrated for the city of Thessaloniki, Greece. The results of an extensive field campaign are presented and the variations in personal exposure between modes of transport, routes, streets and transport microenvironments are evaluated. Air pollution and noise measurements were performed simultaneously along several commuting routes, during the morning and evening rush hours. Combined exposure to environmental pollutants is highlighted based on the Combined Exposure Factor (CEF) and Combined Dose and Exposure Factor (CDEF). The CDEF takes into account the potential relative uptake of each pollutant by considering the physical activities of each citizen. Rather than viewing environmental pollutants separately for planning and environmental sustainability considerations, the possibility of an easy-to-comprehend co-exposure approach based on these two indices is demonstrated. Furthermore, they provide for the first time a combined exposure assessment to these environmental pollutants for Thessaloniki and in this sense they could be of importance for local public authorities and decision makers. A considerable environmental burden for the citizens of Thessaloniki, especially for VOCs and noise pollution levels is observed. The material herein points out the importance of measuring public health stressors and the necessity of considering urban environmental pollution in a holistic way.     

工业用地出让、引资质量底线竞争与环境污染——基于252个地级市面板数据的经验分析

在工业化进程中,中国地方政府利用其掌控的土地资源进行大规模的招商引资活动,其中工业用地出让成为其招商引资的法宝。为了在激烈的竞争中获得某些优势,它们有时甚至不惜降低引资质量底线,从而引来一些高污染、高能耗的工业企业,并带来日益严重的环境污染问题。论文利用工业用地协议出让把工业用地出让、引资质量底线竞争与环境污染三者联系起来,并运用2004—2013年全国252个地级市的土地出让数据、经济数据、环境数据来分析工业用地出让对中国经济和环境的影响。通过协议出让面积对固定资产投资、工业总产值、GDP和地方财政收入进行回归来分析采用协议出让方式引入投资项目的质量;通过协议出让面积对工业二氧化硫和工业废水排放量进行回归来分析协议出让方式对当地环境污染的影响。实证结果表明,当期及前期的工业用地协议出让面积与固定资产投资、工业总产值、GDP、地方财政收入、税收等均呈负相关关系,与当地污染物的排放量呈正相关关系。换言之,地方政府若试图用协议出让方式增加工业用地出让面积来促进地方经济增长,将得不偿失,在短期内虽然对地方经济有一定的促进作用,但在长期内会对地方经济和环境造成危害。为了实现经济和生态环境的可持续发展,应完善地方政府的考核方式,调整以GDP为主的政绩考核机制,综合当地环境状况和除经济增长外的其他社会性服务指标作为考核指标;中央政府应该加强对地方政府的监管,严格规范工业用地出让,优化土地资源配置,提升引资质量;地方政府应加强对当地企业的监管,并严格执行环保标准。     

A study on the migrations of murine rodents in urban environments

The migrations of murine rodents and their capacity for overcoming various obstacles in urbanized environments have been analyzed. Animals marked with tetracycline were captured at different distances from the marking plot. The maximum distance of movement along a straight line was 2030 m for the pygmy wood mouse (Sylvaemus uralensis Pall.) and 430 m for the bank vole (Clethrionomys glareolus Schr.). It was revealed that the pygmy wood mouse can successfully cross various types of landscape discontinuities which can act as movement barriers.     

中国资源型城市CO_2排放比较研究

城市,特别是资源型城市,作为践行国家应对气候变化战略行动的重要主体,在绿色发展转型以及生态文明建设进程中正面临诸多现实挑战。资源型城市能否实现低碳发展转型,关乎我国在国际社会上承诺的中长期碳减排目标能否最终实现。为此,本研究基于中国高空间分辨率网格数据(CHRED),综合运用DPSIR(驱动力-压力-状态-影响-响应)、分类比较研究和情景分析等方法,对我国126个资源型城市的CO_2排放特征进行了系统分析,揭示了这些城市在能源结构和产业结构方面面临的诸多挑战,分析了这些城市未来碳排放趋势和碳减排潜力。研究结果显示:在正常达峰情景下,2030年126个资源型城市将以72.65亿t的CO_2排放量达峰,约占当年全国CO_2排放总量的60%;在提前达峰情景下,资源型城市将在2025年以53.78亿t的CO_2排放量达峰,约占当年全国CO_2排放总量的45%左右。最后,针对我国资源型城市的绿色低碳发展转型以及碳排放达峰管理提出几点建议:一是加强能源统计工作,促进资源型城市碳排放信息化管理平台建设;二是加强体制机制建设,健全资源型城市绿色低碳转型制度体系;三是改善以煤炭等化石燃料为主导的能源消费结构,提高清洁燃料利用的比重;四是加快绿色低碳技术发展,推动产业优化升级和碳排放强度明显下降。     

Comparative overview of indoor air quality in Antwerp, Belgium

This comprehensive study, a first in Belgium, aimed at characterizing the residential and school indoor air quality of subgroups that took part in the European Community Respiratory Health Survey and the International Study of Asthma and Allergy in Childhood [Masoli M, Fabian D, Holt S, Beasley R. Global Burden of Asthma, Medical Research Institute of New Zealand, University of Southampton; 2004.] questionnaire-based asthma and related illnesses studies. The principal aim was to perform a base-line study to assess the indoor air quality in Antwerp in terms of various gaseous and particulate pollutants. Secondly, it aimed to establish correlations between these pollutants investigated, the pollutant levels in the indoor and outdoor micro-environments, findings of the previous questionnaire-based studies and an epidemiological study which ran in conjunction with this study. Lastly, these results were compared and evaluated with current indoor and ambient guidelines in various countries This paper presents selected results on PM1, PM2.5 and PM10 mass concentrations and elemental C estimates as black smoke, as well as gaseous NO(2), SO(2), O(3) and BTEX concentrations of 18 residences and 27 schools. These are related to current guidelines of Flanders, Germany, Norway, China and Canada and evaluated with reference to selected similar studies. It was found that indoor sources such as tobacco smoking and carpets, the latter causing re-suspension of dust, are responsible for elevated indoor respirable particulate matter and place school children and residents at risk. Both PM2.5 and PM10 equalled or exceeded the current guidelines adopted by Flanders, noting that 12-h and 24-h PM2.5 were compared with an annual limit value. Indoor and ambient NO(2) concentrations in the school campaign were higher than the annual EU ambient norm. The other studied pollutant levels were below the current guidelines.     

论构建中国用能权交易体系的制度衔接之维

用能权是具有公私法双重属性的管制性财产权。用能权交易是我国推进绿色发展的一项制度创新,对实现能耗总量和强度"双控"目标具有重要意义。用能权交易制度旨在从供给侧实现节能降耗目标,与其并行的节能减排市场化机制还包括节能量交易和碳排放权交易。节能量交易与用能权交易的规制对象、规制手段、制度设计目的和约束功能相近,故两者存在制度重复建设问题。用能权交易和碳排放权交易的制度设计目的具有协同性、规制对象有交叉,但两者在用能权指标和碳排放配额初始分配、履约等方面存在制度衔接不畅问题。通过法学和制度经济学分析,对用能权交易、节能量交易和碳排放权交易的制度整合与重构提出了建议。中国应当取消目标节能量交易制度,并以核定用能权交易取代项目节能量交易。用能权交易和碳排放权交易的制度衔接层面,应当打通用能权交易体系和碳排放权交易体系,建立联合履约机制,即允许用能单位或排放单位在满足一定条件的情况下使用用能权指标、核定用能权、碳排放配额或核证减排量履约。用能权指标与碳排放配额在履约方面的衔接机制重点在于一级市场的对接。用能权的初始分配仅仅是为重点用能单位设定节能义务的过程,应当以公平为原则,并且采取免费分配的方式。相对于用能权交易制度,碳排放权交易制度则是为了控制排放单位对碳排放空间这一资源的过度利用。因此,在碳排放配额初始分配环节,政府应当通过有偿分配的方式以实现国家对碳排放空间这一稀缺资源的所有者权益。建立核定用能权和核证减排量的联合履约机制,既允许用能单位购买核证减排量抵消其超额耗能,也允许排放单位购买核定用能权以抵消其超额排放,并对抵消比例设定限制。     

Comparing urban air quality in Europe in real time a review of existing air quality indices and the proposal of a common alternative

The EU directives on air quality force member states to inform the public on the status of the ambient air quality. The Internet is commonly used for this purpose and often air quality is being presented as an index ranging from good to bad. A review of existing websites and air quality indices shows that the way air quality is interpreted differs considerably. The paper presents a new air quality index. The index is part of a project to develop a website dedicated to comparing air quality in European cities. The common air quality index (CAQI) is not aimed at replacing existing local indices. The CAQI is a set of two indices: one for roadside monitoring sites and one for average city background conditions. Differentiating between roadside and general city conditions is a first step in assuring consistence in the parameters that are being compared.     

Comparative analysis of small mammal communities in Chisinau and Yaroslavl, two European cities located in different biomes

Comparative analysis of the structure of small mammal communities has been performed in two European cities located in different biomes: Chisinau (2008?C2009) and Yaroslavl (1994?C2002). The parameters studied included abundance, species composition, similarity and difference of faunas, species diversity, and proportions of groups differing in predisposition to synanthropy. It has been found that the structure of small mammal communities in these cities depends on specific physiographic conditions of the surrounding areas and on the distinctive features of the cities themselves (their structure, age, etc.). The similarity between the faunas is accounted for by the common ecological patterns of fauna formation in the biota of urban cenoses.     

基于社会生态系统视角的长三角地级城市韧性度评价

为提升城市应对重大冲击和慢性压力的能力,提高城市的抗打击能力与恢复能力,以及城市对抗不确定风险的韧性程度,本文结合现实背景,以城市社会生态系统的视角,对2014年长三角地区16个地级城市韧性进行实证分析。采用GIS的空间分析和叠加功能方法,从生态环境、市政设施、经济和社会发展4个方面选取24个具体指标,对长三角地区16个地级城市韧性程度及其空间状态做出评价,并确定测度标准值。首先对构成城市韧性的4个因子:生态、市政设施工程、经济以及社会发展进行分析和数字化,得出各因子对城市韧性影响程度的栅格图层;其次对图层进行空间叠加,再得到长三角地区地级城市韧性度评价图。评价结果表明:(1)长三角地级城市韧性呈现"级差化"分布状态,总体呈现出中等韧性状态;(2)长三角地级城市韧性空间分异特征显著,其北翼城市比南翼城市韧性程度较高;(3)长三角地级城市经济、生态韧性在空间分布上相对集中,趋向协调均衡发展。通过城市韧性度分析,认为评价结果基本符合近年来长三角地区城市韧性发展的整体状况,可以在一定程度上增强城市社会生态系统对外界风险的适应能力,并在今后的城市发展调适过程中更具韧性,从而对不同时空尺度的城市韧性状态评价提供一种思路。     

History of the urban environmental imprint: introduction to a multidisciplinary approach to the long-term relationships between Western cities and their hinterland

This paper introduces a series of 11 studies on the relationships between large Western cities (Paris, London, Brussels, Vienna, Barcelona, Athens, New York, Providence) and their surrounding territories over a long historical time period. The concept of hinterland is introduced to designate a rural territory structured by its function of supplying the city with food, fuel, water and other material. The papers question the usefulness of this concept in the current globalized world, where cities are often considered as simple nodes of a network of worldwide trade exchanges, but where new citizen aspirations for reconnecting urban and rural territories are emerging.     

Assessing the sustainability of major cities in China

Rapid urbanization in the developing world calls for attention to address the issue of urban sustainability, especially in emerging countries such as China, where social equity and environmental conditions have been marginalized by the rapid economic development. In this paper, we addressed the above issue with an attempt to answer the following questions: (1) How did the sustainability of Chinese cities evolve over time? (2) What are the driving forces for the evolution? By constructing a composite index that incorporates three major aspects of sustainability, economy, environment, and social equity, we characterized the recent evolution of Chinese cities and assessed the disparity among regions in terms of the sustainability measures. Further, we analyzed the driving forces for the change of sustainability indices through a driving force-pressure-state-effect model. We substantiate our numerical analysis of Chinese cities with a detailed case study of Urumqi, the capital of Xinjiang Autonomous Region, which has experienced significant change over the past 3 decades in every aspect of sustainability. We highlight some fundamental socioeconomic driving forces that have caused spatial restructuring, reflected by land-use change, and consequently impacted the urban environment of Urumqi. A brief case analysis of Guangzhou is also provided.