An environmental evaluation of geopolymer based concrete production: reviewing current research trends

In this study we carry out a detailed environmental evaluation of geopolymer concrete production using the Life Cycle Assessment methodology. The literature shows that the production of most standard types of geopolymer concrete has a slightly lower impact on global warming than standard Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) concrete. Whilst our results confirm this they also show that the production of geopolymer concrete has a higher environmental impact regarding other impact categories than global warming. This is due to the heavy effects of the production of the sodium silicate solution. Geopolymer concrete made from fly ashes or granulated blast furnace slags based require less of the sodium silicate solution in order to be activated. They therefore have a lower environmental impact than geopolymer concrete made from pure metakaolin. However, when the production of fly ashes and granulated blast furnace slags is taken into account during the life cycle assessment (using either an economic or a mass allocation procedure), it appears that geopolymer concrete has a similar impact on global warming than standard concrete. This study highlights that future research and development in the field of geopolymer concrete technology should focus on two potential solutions. First of all the use of industrial waste that is not recyclable within other industries and secondly on the production of geopolymer concrete using a mix of blast furnace slag and activated clays. Furthermore geopolymer concrete production would gain from using waste material with a suitable Si/Al molar ratio in order to minimise the amount of sodium silicate solution used. Finally, by taking into account mix-design technology, which has already been developed for OPC concrete, the amount of binder required to produce a geopolymer concrete could be reduced.     

Cost-Effectiveness of Alternative Strategies in Mitigating the Greenhouse Impact of Waste Management in Three Communities of Different Size

Waste management is a significant source of methane (CH₄) emissions. CH₄ is second to carbon dioxide (CO₂) the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas. In this article the methodology and results from a study on the reduction potential of alternative waste treatment strategies in mitigating the greenhouse impact are presented. The objective is to provide information to decision makers so that the greenhouse issue can be included in the decision making on waste management strategies. The potential cost-effectiveness of reducing the greenhouse impact of alternative waste treatment strategies in three communities of different size in Finland is assessed. The estimation of the greenhouse impact includes estimates of the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, the amount of carbon (C) stored at landfills (Csink) and the emission savings that can be achieved by using waste for energy production (assumed decrease in the use of fossil fuels). Landfill gas recovery with energy production was found to be the most-efficient way in reducing the greenhouse impact from large landfills. Burning of all the waste or the combustible fraction in municipal solid waste (MSW) was also an efficient method to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, especially if the energy produced can reduce the burning of fossil fuels. Emissions from transportation of waste are small compared with the emissions from landfills. Even if the transportion mileage is doubled due to increasing separation and recycling the greenhouse impact of transportation would be only 3–4 percent of the impact of landfilling the waste.     

我国典型露地蔬菜生产中的温室气体排放

基于国家农业统计数据,以露地番茄、黄瓜、大白菜和萝卜为研究对象,应用生命周期评价(life cycle assessment,LCA)方法,定量化我国4种典型露地蔬菜生产中的净温室气体排放(net greenhouse gas emission,NGHGE),并比较蔬菜种类间、省域间净温室气体排放差异和分析减排措施.结果表明:我国典型露地蔬菜生产系统温室气体排放量远高于其带来的碳固定量,是净温室气体排放系统,生产单位面积露地番茄、黄瓜、大白菜和萝卜净温室气体排放(以CO_2-eq计)分别为4 149、 3 718、 3 780和2 427 kg·hm~(-2),不同种类露地蔬菜净温室气体排放差异大;我国典型露地蔬菜净温室气体排放空间差异大,其中,海南、云南、陕西和山东等省份番茄、黄瓜、大白菜和萝卜净温室气体排放高;肥料生产运输和施用是露地蔬菜温室气体排放的主要贡献因子,贡献率为86.8%～90.8%,因此改善肥料生产工艺降低肥料生产运输过程中的温室气体排放和根据露地蔬菜种类及种植地区优化肥料施用量是实现我国露地蔬菜可持续发展的重要措施.     

CDM在光伏产业中的应用研究

太阳能是国际社会公认的最理想的替代能源,中国太阳能资源丰富,由于欧美各国市场需求的增大,中国光伏产业取得了快速的发展。但目前中国光伏产业还处于起步阶段,仍面临着资金和技术等难题,而清洁发展机制(CDM)是一种基于市场的灵活履约机制,在中国光伏产业中引入清洁发展机制,不但有利于减少温室气体的排放,而且可大大缓解因资金和技术所带来的问题,并带来一系列环境和社会效益。其次,以锦州市一座10 MW光伏并网电站为例,计算了其年减排量,并对发电收益和CDM项目收益进行了比较及论证。     

Long-term reduction potential of non-CO2 greenhouse gases

A methodology is presented here to assess the potential long-term contribution of non-CO₂ greenhouse gases in mitigation scenarios. The analysis shows the future development of the mitigation potential of non-CO₂ gases (as a function of changes in technology and implementation barriers) to represent a crucial parameter for the overall costs of mitigation scenarios. The recently developed marginal abatement cost curves for 2010 in the EMF-21 project are taken as the starting point. First-order estimates were made of the future maximum attainable reduction potentials and costs on the basis of available literature. The set of MAC curves developed was used in a multi-gas analysis for stabilising greenhouse gas concentrations at 550 ppm CO₂-equivalent. Including future development for the non-CO₂ mitigation options not only increases their mitigation potential but also lowers the overall costs compared to situations where no development is assumed (3–21% lower in 2050 and 4–26% lower in 2100 in our analysis). Along with the fluorinated gases, energy-related methane emissions make up the largest share in total non-CO₂ abatement potential as they represent a large emission source and have a large potential for reduction (towards 90% compared to baseline in 2100). Most methane and nitrous oxide emissions from landuse-related sources are less simple to abate, with an estimated abatement potential in 2100 of around 60% and 40%, respectively.     

气体燃料发动机发展对中国温室气体减排贡献的生命周期分析

为分析气体燃料发动机的温室气体减排能力,应用生命周期分析方法计算了不同燃料的生命周期温室气体排放量,并据此计算了不同发动机的温室气体排放量.建立了气体燃料发动机“最大限度发展”和“不发展”两种情形.据此预测了2020年中国气体燃料发动机的温室气体减排效果,估算了2020年气体燃料发动机的耗气量占气体供应量的比重.结果显示,在最大限度发展情形下,气体燃料发动机将分别为城市公共交通、船舶动力和火力发电领域减少约7.47, 18.25, 450.1Mt CO2e的温室气体,减排量占全国减排目标的5.3%.气体燃料发动机将分别消耗15%的天然气、18.5%的煤层气和50%的垃圾填埋气供应量.考虑我国气体燃料资源结构情况及供应形势,推广气体燃料发动机是切实可行的.     

Cleaner production as climate investment—integrated assessment in Taiyuan City,China

Taiyuan, one of the most polluted cities in the world, is the first cleaner production demonstration city in China. We assess energy related cleaner production projects in Taiyuan from the point of view of climate change and integrated assessment. In the assessment we develop a rather detailed methodology that relies on a battery of chained models All of the projects improve energy efficiency and reduce emissions. Still, we find that their environmental health benefit differs substantially. The projects are treated similarly from point of view of funding and the regularatory process. Yet, we find that their cost differs substantially, and there is no proportionality between costs and benefits. The finding could supplement explanations of cleaner production progress that rely on financial and institutional barriers. We also ask if the positive attitude to cleaner production in China may help the country introduce greenhouse gas saving projects under another name. It turns out that some, but not all of the projects we analyse have significant greenhouse gas reduction potential. The possibility for foreign funding as CDM projects is discussed.     

苏州市生活垃圾处理碳足迹核查

根据《PAS2050规范》的指导,结合生命周期评价技术方法和LandGEM模型,对苏州市生活垃圾填埋和焚烧处理的生命周期过程进行了碳足迹核查. 详细列出了垃圾处理过程中可能的温室气体排放源,计算各排放源的电耗或能耗,并通过与温室气体排放系数相乘最终转化为苏州市生活垃圾处理温室气体排放量. 结果表明:苏州市填埋处理1 t生活垃圾整个生命周期过程中温室气体的排放量(以CO₂当量计)为1 942.47 kg,焚烧处理为-180.87 kg. 按照目前苏州市生活垃圾处理权重进行分配,可得苏州市处理1 t生活垃圾整个生命周期过程中温室气体的排放量(以CO₂当量计)为880.80 kg. 在整个核查过程中,考虑了在填埋和焚烧处理时发电对温室气体带来的减量效应.      

基于IVE模型和大数据分析的杭州市道路移动源主要温室气体排放清单研究

利用IVE模型和对杭州市机动车排放管理数据库大数据的分析,得到杭州市2015年各类机动车主要温室气体高分辨率排放清单,分析了排放分担情况及时间变化特征,并利用Arc GIS及杭州市路网信息建立了1 km×1 km网格化空间分布.结果表明,杭州市道路移动源温室气体排放中CO_2、CH_4和N_2O的年排放量分别为818.11×10~4、0.85×10~4和0.07×10~4t,合计856.79×10~4t(以CO2当量计).从温室气体种类来看,CO_2占道路移动源温室气体排放总量的绝大部分,为95.5%;从机动车类型来看,小微型客车对道路移动源温室气体排放的贡献率最大,占72.8%;从道路类型的排放情况来看,杭州市市中心、城区、城郊和郊区中温室气体合计CO_2当量贡献率最高的均为主干路,分别为43.4%、61.8%、58.0%和42.4%.杭州市道路移动源温室气体排放强度均呈现由城市中心向城市边缘递减的趋势,同时温室气体排放量日变化特征明显,均出现弱双峰现象.     

What contribution can tree plantations make towards meeting Australia’s commitments under the Kyoto Protocol?

The Kyoto Protocol has been drafted to bring about an overall reduction in net emissions of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. Australia has agreed to limit its increase of net greenhouse gas emissions to 8% between 1990 and 2010. While this target is not as tight as that of other parties to the Protocol, it nonetheless constitutes a significant reduction of net emissions below business-as-usual projections, and it will require significant policy initiatives to achieve this reduction. The Kyoto Protocol allows some carbon sequestration by vegetation sinks to be offset against CO₂ emissions from the burning of fossil fuels. This paper aims to estimate the contribution that forestation projects could make towards meeting Australia’s commitments under the Kyoto Protocol. It concludes that new plantations could sequester between 0.6 and 7 MtC yr⁻¹ over the commitment period (2008–2012) and offset between about 0.5 and 6% of Australia’s 1990 greenhouse gas emissions. The different estimates depend on the area of eligible plantations that will be established from 1999 onwards and whether plantations will be allowed to grow through to the end of the commitment period or will be in short-rotation stands that may be harvested before 2012. The maximum emission offset can only be achieved if new plantations are established at a rate of 100,000 ha yr⁻¹, which is equivalent to the Australian Government’s target under the 2020 vision. It is likely that sufficient suitable land would be available in Australia to achieve the required establishment rates. However, while such a contribution by vegetation sinks would be helpful, it would not, on its own, be sufficient for Australia to meet its required greenhouse gas emission target.     

A novel framework for analysis of cross-media environmental effects from agricultural conservation practices

Agricultural ecosystems are a source of greenhouse gas (GHGs) emissions and losses of nutrients to waterways. Several studies have recognized this and have documented the potential to reduce GHG fluxes and nutrient loss to waterways by using carbon offsets to fund the implementation of land retirement and afforestation. However, the ability to use land for both agricultural production and environmental conservation is also important. This study develops a novel analytical framework that is used to examine the cross-media (water and air) environmental effects of implementing offset-funded conservation practices in a working-lands setting. The framework is applied to a case study which examines the extent to which carbon pricing can affect practice implementation costs and the optimal distribution of these practices throughout an agricultural watershed. Results indicate that carbon offsets can reduce conservation practice implementation costs and have the potential to reduce greater amounts of nonpoint source pollution for a given cost of implementation. This conclusion has significant implications for policymaking, particularly with regard to using markets for GHG emissions to achieve water quality improvements where water quality trading or government conservation programs have historically been unsuccessful.     

浅谈参与清洁发展机制的意义

清洁发展机制,是《京都议定书》中引入的三个灵活履约机制之一。由于发达国家减排温室气体的成本是发展中国家的几倍甚至几十倍。发达国家因此通过在发展中国家实施具有温室气体减排效果的项目,把项目所产生的温室气体减少的排放量作为履行《京都议定书》所规定的一部分义务。对清洁生产机制的理论和意义进行了简要的阐述和说明。     

Life cycle greenhouse gases,energy and cost assessment of automobiles using magnesium from Chinese Pidgeon process

Magnesium (Mg) has a great potential to reduce vehicle weight, fuel consumption, and greenhouse gas emissions. The Chinese Mg industry has developed rapidly since the 1990s. The output of Mg reached 700,000 tons in 2006, accounting for more than 70% of global Mg production. Most of Mg is produced in China through the Pidgeon process that has an intensive energy usage and generates a large amount of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, which may offset the potential advantage of using Mg parts in automobiles. It is critical to quantify the energy usage and GHG emissions through entire life cycle when the Mg are applied to automobiles. It is also essential to evaluate cost implications of the Mg parts application in automobiles and ensure it to be cost competitive. The objectives of this study are (1) Build a life cycle inventory (LCI) of Mg produced by Pidgeon process; (2) Establish an LCA model that can evaluate GHG emissions and energy usage for the Mg automotive application; (3) Estimate the cost implications of the Mg parts application in automobiles.An Mg LCI was built based on interviews and surveys and the GREET model was adapt for this study. The results indicated that, for each kilogram of Mg produced by Pidgeon process, GHG emissions and energy usage would be 27 kg CO₂eq and 280 MJ, which are five times higher than steel production. Replacing steel with 82 kg Mg on a base automobile would lower curb weight by 5.7%, but only reduce life cycle GHG emissions and energy usage by 0.8% and 1.3%. Scenario analyses indicated that potential reduction of life cycle GHG emissions and energy usage could reach to 15%, if secondary weight saving and a smaller engine were included. Cost analyses also show 18% reduction when the additional weight saving and a smaller displacement engine were included, under a 100,000 km driving distance and gasoline price at $1.0/l.     

生物质炭与有机物料混施对土壤温室气体排放和微生物活性的影响

土壤是温室气体的重要排放源,在土壤中施入生物质炭和有机物料对土壤微生物在土壤碳氮转化和微量气体代谢方面有着重要作用,不过迄今在生物质炭和有机物料混施对土壤温室气体排放和微生物活性的影响方面的研究尚少.本研究采用室内培养试验,利用土壤添加生物质炭和生物质炭与不同有机物料混施,探究生物质炭和有机物料混施对土壤温室气体排放及微生物活性的影响.共设5个处理:新鲜土壤(S)、新鲜土壤+2%生物质炭(SB)、新鲜土壤+2%生物质炭+1%大豆饼(SBS)、新鲜土壤+2%生物质炭+1%小麦秸秆(SBW)、新鲜土壤+2%生物质炭+1%鸡粪(SBC).研究表明:只添加生物质炭对温室气体的排放影响不明显;生物质炭与有机物料混施使土壤的CO2、N2O排放明显增加,而对CH4的排放影响不明显;从温室气体增温潜势(GWP)变化可以看出有机物料施用对温室效应具有明显的增强作用;生物质炭与有机物料混施在一定程度上增加微生物生物量碳和代谢熵(q CO2),各处理的代谢熵是对照处理S的0.18~4.37倍;不同有机物料对FDA水解酶、过氧化氢酶、脲酶和碱性磷酸酶活性都表现为激活作用.     

Capital assets and institutional constraints to implementation of greenhouse gas mitigation options in agriculture

Agriculture is one of the major sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emission. It accounts for approximately 15% of the total global anthropogenic emissions of GHGs. Emissions could be twice as much if indirect emissions are also taken into the consideration. However, unlike other high emitting sectors such as transport or energy, agriculture is potentially a significant carbon “sink”. It has high technical potential as a carbon sink and if tapped, can substantially enhance global sequestration efforts. The technical potential, however, may not translate into actual GHG reduction because of the capital assets and institutional constraints faced by the smallholder farmers in the developing countries. In this paper we develop a capital assets based framework of physical, financial, social, human and natural barriers to agricultural carbon mitigation initiatives and through analysis of current initiatives, we set out policy based options to reduce each of these barriers. Fundamentally, barrier removal will entail designing agricultural carbon mitigation initiatives in collaboration with farmer communities, through strengthening local institutions, understanding land tenure and natural resource cultures, ensuring legitimacy and equity in payments and fast tracking training and information. We provide a framework that simultaneously aids the dual objectives of alleviating poverty in the poor farming communities of developing countries and lowering global greenhouse gas emissions.     

基于LCA的北京市公交车节能及温室气体减排潜力分析

新能源公交车是未来城市公交行业节能及温室气体减排的重点发展方向.新能源公交车在行驶阶段具有良好的节能及温室气体减排效果,而汽车制造、能源生产等相关生命周期阶段的能耗及温室气体排放常被忽视,且目前新能源公交车的乘客运载功能相对较弱,可能对节能及温室气体减排的潜力造成较为显著的影响.因此,本文基于北京市公交车的运营特征,采用生命周期评价(LCA)方法,选择客运周转量作为功能单位,核算了天然气公交车、混合动力公交车和纯电动公交车等新能源公交车相对于柴油公交车的节能及温室气体减排效益.结果表明:发展新能源公交车对促进北京市公交行业及城市节能低碳发展具有积极的作用,但相对于基于运营里程的核算结果,本研究新能源公交车节能及温室气体减排潜力均较低,主要原因是新能源公交车的实际载客量相对较低;混合动力公交车和纯电动公交车在空调开启时的节能潜力与温室气体减排潜力均远低于天然气公交车;通过发展情景分析,建议北京市现阶段应优先发展天然气公交车,适当发展纯电动公交车和混合动力公交车,以减少北京市公交车的总体能耗,同时降低温室气体排放强度.     

Sectoral Trends and Driving Forces of Global Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Disaggregation of sectoral energy use and greenhouse gas emissions trends reveals striking differences between sectors and regions of the world. Understanding key driving forces in the energy end-use sectors provides insights for development of projections of future greenhouse gas emissions. This paper examines global and regional historical trends in energy use and carbon emissions in the industrial, buildings, transport, and agriculture sectors. Activity and economic drivers as well as trends in energy and carbon intensity are evaluated. We show that macro-economic indicators, such as GDP, are insufficient for comprehending trends and driving forces at the sectoral level. These indicators need to be supplemented with sector-specific information for a more complete understanding of future energy use and greenhouse gas emissions.     

氮肥管理措施对黑土玉米田温室气体排放的影响

采用静态箱-气相色谱法研究了不同氮肥管理措施(农民常规施肥、减氮20%、添加硝化抑制剂、施用控释肥)对黑土玉米田温室气体排放的影响.结果表明:黑土玉米田施肥(基肥和追肥)后1~3d出现N2O排放峰,施肥后16d内N2O排放量占生育期总排放量的28.8%~41.9%.减施氮肥20%显著降低土壤N2O排放,生育期内的N2O累积排放量减少了17.6%~46.1%,综合温室效应降低30.7%~67.8%,温室气体排放强度降低29.1%~67.0%.等氮量投入时,添加吡啶抑制剂土壤N2O排放量、综合温室效应和温室气体排放强度最低.玉米拔节~乳熟期出现了较强的土壤CO2排放,黑土玉米田是大气中CH4的一个较弱的“汇”,施氮和添加硝化抑制剂对黑土玉米田CO2排放和CH4吸收没有显著影响.添加硝化抑制剂和施用控释肥不影响玉米产量.在本试验条件下,减氮20%并添加吡啶抑制剂在保证玉米产量的同时, 减排增收效果优于其他施肥措施,适宜在黑土区玉米种植中推广使用.     

生物炭添加对土壤温室气体排放影响的长短期效应研究进展

人类活动引起的大气温室气体浓度增加是气候变暖的主要原因,全球变暖已经成为了当今人类社会所面临的严峻挑战,应对气候变暖的关键是减少温室气体排放和增加生态系统碳汇,由于生物炭特有的理化和生物学特性,将其施入土壤被认为是一种有前景的减排增汇措施.因此进行生物炭对土壤温室气体排放的影响研究对于减缓温室效应和实现“碳中和”具有重要意义.通过综述生物炭对土壤温室气体排放影响的长短期效应及其影响机制,发现生物炭添加对土壤温室气体排放的影响因生物炭原料类型、热解温度、添加量、土壤和植被类型的不同而不同.此外,因老化时间、老化方式和培养方法的不同,老化生物炭对土壤温室气体的减排效应可能增强或减弱甚至消失.同时,在总结现有研究不足的基础上,对未来生物炭影响土壤温室气体排放研究的方向和重点进行了分析和展望,提出了今后应加强CO₂、 N₂O和CH₄排放影响的同步研究、减排与固碳效应的同步研究、不同老化方式生物炭和不同培养方法的联合研究和利用¹³C和¹⁵N示踪技术从过程层次上揭示影响机制.     

Climate Change and Energy Technologies

The long time scale of the climate change problem and the inherent nature of the carbon cycle bring important implications for present technology development efforts. Even if major technology improvements are achieved for non-carbon-emitting technologies such as energy-intensity improvements, wind, solar, biomass, and nuclear over the course of the 21^st century, most examinations of potential future greenhouse emissions conclude that additional technology development will be required to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations. The evelopment of an expanded suite of technologies including carbon capture and disposal, hydrogen systems and biotechnology hold the potential to dramatically reduce the cost of stabilizing greenhouse gas concentrations. This paper examines these technologies in the context of a global integrated assessment model of energy, agriculture, land-use, economics, and carbon cycle processes.