Land application of biomass residue generated from palm oil processing: its potential benefits and threats

Man’s increased demand for food and better living conditions has led to over exploitation of resources and the consequent generation of enormous amounts of liquid and solid waste materials. This is one of the global challenges for mankind. In Malaysia, palm oil mill waste (POMW) contributes the highest proportion of industrial solid wastes produced yearly. Wastes from the mills include palm oil mill effluent, decanter cake, empty fruit bunches, seed shells and the fibre from the mesocarp. Direct application of POMW into agricultural soil has resulted in a number of problems such as water pollution, leaching. However, with application rates specific for targeted plant species, land application can be employed as a permanent solution to the problem of waste from palm oil mills. This review examines the characteristics of each of the palm oil wastes and their potential for use as a future fertilizer supplement.     

Pollution abatement in the indian pulp and paper industry

Summary In this paper, pollutants in air, water and as solids which stem from the paper industry are discussed, and pollution abatement measures are suggested. The Pulp and Paper Industry is highly capital, material and energy intensive and return on investment is very low. This paper reviews some emerging international principles which are effective in reducing both effluent treatment costs per tonne of paper and the mill discharges, to levels where their environmental impacts become far less significant than at present.Mr Avijit Dey is a graduate in Chemical Engineering from Jadavpur University and at present is Design Engineer in the Paper and Process Cell of Development Consultants Ltd, 24-B Park Street, Calcutta 70016, India. Dr B. Sen Gupta is Reader in the Chemical Engineering Department of Jadavpur University, Calcutta. He obtained his BChE and PhD in Chemical Engineering from Jadavpur University and an ME in Chemical Engineering from the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore. His research interests involve pulp and paper technology, water conservation and management, and pollution control.     

Assessing the Effectiveness of Winter Cover Crops for Controlling Agricultural Nutrient Losses

A nutrient loss reduction strategy is necessary to guide the efforts of improving water quality downstream of an agricultural watershed. In this study, the effectiveness of two winter cover crops, namely cereal rye and annual ryegrass, is explored as a loss reduction strategy in a watershed that ultimately drains into a water supply reservoir. Using a coupled optimization-watershed model, optimal placements of the cover crops were identified that would result in the tradeoffs between nitrate-N losses reduction and adoption levels. Analysis of the 10%, 25%, 50%, and 75% adoption levels extracted from the optimal tradeoffs showed that the cover crop placements would provide annual nitrate-N loss reductions of 3.0%–3.7%, 7.8%–8.8%, 15%–17.5%, and 20.9%–24.3%, respectively. In addition, for the same adoption levels (i.e., 10%–75%), sediment (1.8%–17.7%), and total phosphorus losses (0.8%–8.6%) could be achieved. Results also indicate that implementing each cover crop on all croplands of the watershed could cause annual water yield reduction of at least 4.8%, with greater than 28% in the months of October and November. This could potentially be detrimental to the storage volume of the downstream reservoir, especially in drought years, if cover crops are adopted in most of the reservoir's drainage area. Evaluating water yield impacts, particularly in periods of low flows, is thus critical if cover crops are to be considered as best management practices in water supply watersheds.     

Advanced oxidation treatment of pulp mill effluent for TOC and toxicity removals

Pulp mill effluent was treated by different advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) consisting of UV, UV/H2O2, TiO2-assisted photo-catalysis (UV/TiO2) and UV/H2O2/TiO2 in lab-scale reactors for total organic carbon (TOC) and toxicity removals. Effects of some operating parameters such as the initial pH, oxidant and catalyst concentrations on TOC and toxicity removals were investigated. Almost every method resulted in some degree of TOC and toxicity removal from the pulp mill effluent. However, the TiO2-assisted photo-catalysis (UV/TiO2) resulted in the highest TOC and toxicity removals under alkaline conditions when compared with the other AOPs tested. Approximately, 79.6% TOC and 94% toxicity removals were obtained by the TiO2-assisted photo-catalysis (UV/TiO2) with a titanium dioxide concentration of 0.75gl(-1) at pH 11 within 60min.     

A QUARTER CENTURY OF INDUSTRIAL WATER USE AND A DECADE OF DISCHARGE CONTROLS1

This paper explores the trends in industrial water intake, discharge, recycling, and gross water use to see whether or not the 1972 Clean Water Act (CWA) has had an impact on industrial effluent discharge. Quinquennial Census data indicate that the levels of discharge, both generally and per unit of product, have been falling for as long as these data have been gathered. Trends in gross water use and recycling ratios suggest that during the 25 years of record production processes were gradually modified so that less total water was discharged and less was used per unit of output. Untreated discharge as a percent of all discharge fell fairly steadily across all industries until 1973 and continued to fall in 1978 in the major BOD-discharging industries. By 1978, 75 percent of the pulp and paper effluent and 40 percent of the food processing effluent was treated. The consistent increase in treated discharge in the pulp and paper mills, with their large component of BOD-related process discharge, was not matched by parallel trends in the steel, petroleum, and chemicals industries with their relatively smaller amounts (and percents) of process discharge. This suggests that the CWA may have been responsible in part for the change in the former. In the pulp and paper industry, there is further evidence that the CWA has influenced wastewater discharge. Although, for the century as a whole, pulp and paper mills discharged less water, and more discharge was treated, in 1978 than in 1973, these trends were especially dramatic among firms in the Northeast where controls were likely to have been most stringent. Finally, using the only direct evidence we have, it appears that the drop in discharge levels and the increasing amounts of treatment had a significant effect on the amount of BOD discharged to surface and ground water. In 1973 the pulp and paper mills in Wisconsin discharged an average of about 868,000 lbs/day; by 1982, despite increased levels of production, they discharged less than 10 percent of that. There is no doubt that industrial water use changed over the 25 years of record. Although the evidence is circumstantial, it appears that the CWA and the environmental ethic which spawned it played an important part in some aspects of the shifts.     

Efficient water use in industries: cases from the Indian agro-based pulp and paper mills

Agro-based pulp and paper mills in India are one of the most polluting industries; in addition, they are high consumers of raw water. Growing scarcity of high quality freshwater as well as stringent regulatory standards is compelling these units to explore appropriate water management options. Based on data obtained through a questionnaire survey and plant visits, this work provides an overview of the water use and effluent treatment status in Indian agro-residue and recycled pulp and paper mills. The challenges faced by this sector are reviewed and practices adopted by progressive units to minimize freshwater use are illustrated through case studies.     

ASSESSING INSTREAM FLOWS AND RESERVOIR OPERATIONS ON AN EASTERN IDAHO RWER1

ABSTRACT: A methodology for assessing reservoir management was applied to the historical conflict between winter fish and wildilife flows below Island Park Reservoir on Henrys Fork of the Snake River and the fulfillment of storage water rights. The methodology consists of (1) identifying impacts of flow regulation, (2) quantifying relationships among variables affecting physical reservoir fill, and (3) assessing effects of these discharges on the fulfillment of water rights in the context of a larger system of interrelated reservoirs. Winter (storage season) flows are critical to management of fish and wildlife populations below Island Park Dam, but flow regulation has resulted in decreased winter discharge. Allowable winter flows are a function of inflow, length of storage season, reservoir content at the start of storage season, and potential for downstream capture of excess storage season water discharged at Island Park. Modeling results indicate that winter flows in the range of those recommended for fish and wildlife management are attainable during average years but not during years when initial reservoir content is low. The methodology was successful in quantifying information useful to decision makers in a variety of agencies and disciplines and could be applied to solve water management problems on other regulated river systems.     

Clogging of an Effluent Dominated Semiarid River: A Conceptual Model of Stream‐Aquifer Interactions1

Abstract: Water managers in arid and semiarid regions increasingly view treated wastewater (effluent) as an important water resource. Artificial recharge basins allow effluent to seep into the ground relieving stressed aquifers, however these basins frequently clog due to physical, chemical, and biological processes. Likewise effluent is increasingly used to maintain perennial base flow for dry streambeds, however, little is known about the impact of effluent on streambed hydraulic conductivity and stream‐aquifer interactions. We address this issue by investigating: if a clogging layer forms, how the formation of a clogging layer alters stream‐aquifer connections, and what hydrologic factors control the formation and removal of clogging layers. We focused on the Upper Santa Cruz River, Arizona where effluent from the Nogales International Waste Water Treatment Plant sustains perennial flow. Monthly sampling, along a 30 km river reach, was done with two foci: physical streambed transformations and water source identification using chemical composition. Historical dataset were included to provide a larger context for the work. Results show that localized clogging occurs in the Upper Santa Cruz River. The clogging layers perch the stream and shallow streambed causing desaturation below the streambed. With these results, a conceptual model of clogging is established in the context of a semiarid hydrologic cycle: formation during the hot premonsoon months when flow is nearly constant and removal by large flood flows (>10 m³/s) during the monsoon season. However, if the intensity of flooding during the semiarid hydrologic cycle is lessened, the dependent riparian area can experience a die off. This conceptual model leads us to the conclusion that effluent dominated riparian systems are inherently unstable due to the clogging process. Further understanding of this process could lead to improved ecosystem restoration and management.     

Integrated Wastewater Management Reporting at Tourist Areas for Recycling Purposes, Including the Case Study of Hersonissos, Greece

Wastewater treatment facilities in tourist areas, in comparison to other municipal facilities, require specific configurations and additional management actions in order to achieve a reliable and cost-effective treatment. For example, the same facility operates during winter with minimum flows and in summer with peak flows. Moreover, careful effluent management is required to minimize environmental impact and health effects on tourists. In this study, effluent management data, including quantitative and qualitative effluent characteristics, reuse, and economic aspects of the Hersonissos Wastewater Treatment Plant (WTP) in Greece, are discussed. It has been designed to treat both municipal wastewater from the Hersonissos Municipality and septage from the wider area. Analysis of effluent quantitative data showed two flow peaks in the summer period and only one in winter. The WTP was found to provide a reliable level of treatment in terms of biochemical oxygen demand (95.9%), total suspended solids (97.2%), and total nitrogen (87.7%) removal, but increased numbers of fecal coliforms were measured at some peak flow periods, suggesting the need for additional management strategies. Effluent is reused mainly for agricultural irrigation; secondary uses include fire protection and landscape irrigation. Economic analysis showed that for each cubic meter treated, the total annual economic cost for treatment, filtration, and reuse infrastructure was 1.07 €, 0.05 €, and 0.08 €, respectively.     

Modeling Monthly Fluctuations in Submersion Area of a Dammed River Reservoir: A Case Study1

Lu, Haorong, S. Samuel Li, and Jinsong Guo, 2012. Modeling Monthly Fluctuations in Submersion Area of a Dammed River Reservoir: A Case Study. Journal of the American Water Resources Association (JAWRA) 1‐13. DOI: 10.1111/jawr.12003 Abstract: Fluctuations in water submersion of the Three Gorges Reservoir in China have not been explored in spite of their important implications for shoreline erosion and other undesirable consequences. This article aims to quantify the monthly fluctuations in response to changing hydraulic parameters and regional climatic factors. Flow velocity and water levels distributed along the 609‐km long dammed river reservoir are calculated with a one‐dimensional hydrodynamics model. Evaporation of water from the surface of the reservoir is determined using mass transfer‐based methods. Calculated flow velocities and water levels compare well with field data. We show that the water surface slope decreases with rising water level at the dam, and decreases to almost zero during the winter months of water storage when the downstream water level reaches the normal pool level. The submersion area varies between 830 and 1,070 km² over the year or over 20% of the reservoir zone will experience the annual cycle of dry land and partial or complete submersion. These fluctuations are of relevance to shoreline management and to the prevention and restoration of shoreline erosion. Evaporation is estimated to fluctuate between 1,240 and 26,110 tons of water per month per kilometer length of reservoir channel; this can possibly affect the hydrological budget of the reservoir region. The simple methodologies discussed in this article can easily be applied to other dammed river reservoirs for submersion estimates.     

Environmental Effects of Storage Preservation Practices: Controlled Flushing of Fine Sediment from a Small Hydropower Reservoir

Sediment flushing may be effective in mitigating loss of reservoir storage due to siltation, but flushing must be controlled to limit the impact on the downstream environment. A reliable prediction of the environmental effects of sediment flushing is hindered by the limited scientific information currently available. Consequently, there may be some controversy as regards to management decisions, planning the work, and monitoring strategies. This paper summarizes the main results of a monitoring campaign on the stream below a small alpine hydropower reservoir subjected to annual flushing between 2006 and 2009. The removed sediment was essentially silt, and the suspended solid concentration (SSC) of the discharged water was controlled to alleviate downstream impact. Control was achieved through hydraulic regulation and mechanical digging, alternating daytime sediment evacuation, and nocturnal clear water release. The four operations lasted about two weeks each and had an average SSC of about 4 g L^?1. Maximum values of SSC were generally kept below 10 g L^?1. Downstream impact was quantified through sampling of fish fauna (brown trout) and macroinvertebrate in the final reach of the effluent stream. The benthic community was severely impaired by the flushing operations, but recovered to pre-flushing values in a few months. As expected, the impact on brown trout was heavier on juveniles. While data biasing due to fish removal and re-stocking cannot be ruled out, the fish community seems to have reached a state of equilibrium characterized by a lower density than was measured before the flushing operations.     

Phosphorus concentrations, loads, and sources within the Illinois River drainage area, northwest Arkansas, 1997-2008

In the Ozark Highlands and across the United States, effluent phosphorus (P) sources often have a profound impact on water column concentrations and riverine transport. This study evaluated (i) annual P loads at the Illinois River at Arkansas Highway 59 from calendar year 1997 through 2008, (ii) the relative contribution of effluent P sources to annual riverine P transport, (iii) longitudinal gradients in water column P concentrations downstream from several wastewater treatment plant effluent discharges, and (iv) changes in monthly P loads over the last decade. This study showed that annual P loads have ranged from 64,000 kg to over 426,000 kg and that P transport was positively correlated to hydrology (i.e., the amount of water delivered downstream). The relative contribution of P inputs from municipal facilities has decreased from 40% of the annual P load at the Illinois River at Arkansas Highway 59 to < 15% in recent years. Elevated P concentrations during base flow conditions were traced 45 river km upstream to one municipal effluent discharge, but all effluent discharges influenced P concentrations in the receiving streams. Most important, flow-adjusted monthly P loads showed two distinct trends over time. Flow-adjusted loads significantly increased from 1997 through 2002 and significantly decreased from 2002 through 2008. The concentrations and transport of P within the Illinois River drainage area are significantly decreasing from all the watershed management changes that have occurred, and monitoring should continue to determine if this decrease continues at the same rate over the next several years.     

Towards water security: political determination and human adaptation crucial

Although high-level attention has been drawn to the escalating world water problems, few changes are noticeable in terms of actual management of the water resource. Politicians continue to be misled by the apparent simplicity of water. The environment-oriented community tends to focus only on problems arising from man-induced side-effects, and most people tend to take water for granted. The double challenge of providing adequate water supplies and meeting increasing food requirements of expanding populations, in addition to already existing water management problems, requires special attention. In addition, the intensifying pollution of water systems will have to be dealt with. Considerable human adaptation to physical realities as well as ingenious action are needed.
There is a brief discussion of the risk of hydrocide, a condition of serious water-quality degradation where available water is no longer sufficient, or cannot be used for the purposes needed. However, the main focus of the paper is on water quantity issues, highlighting the confusion arising from different methods of assessing water scarcity. Levels of regional water scarcity predicaments are discussed in terms of distinct regional clusters. Attention is drawn to the limitations of dry climate regions to achieve food self sufficiency, and the emerging need in many areas to import food; related trade and price aspects are also discussed. A distinction is made between efficiency of use and efficiency of allocation.
The need for a global ethic regarding upstream–downstream water-sharing is stressed, especially in cases of consumptive (evaporative) use of water for cultivating crops, which may deplete river flows available to downstream users. In conclusion, four key concerns are highlighted that call for global consensus.     

Management of biomass residues generated from palm oil mill: Vermicomposting a sustainable option

Solid waste management is one of the challenging problems worldwide and it is becoming more complex by the increase in population and subsequently the waste generated. In Malaysia, among industrial solid waste palm oil mill waste (POMW) contributes the highest share. Wastes from the oil palm mill includes palm oil mill effluent (POME), decanter cake, empty fruit bunches, seed shells and the fibre from mesocarp. Generally most of the waste generated is either disposed of via open dumping or used as fertilizers as such or as animal feed. Land application of POMW and POME is very common practice as it contains numbers of plant nutrients. Direct application of POMW into agricultural soil can result in a number of problems such as water pollution, leaching etc. To deal with these problems, vermicomposting of palm oil mill waste may be a sustainable waste management option.There are number of researches going on management of biomass residues from palm oil mill, but very few works are going on vermicomposting of these agro-industrial waste. Vermicomposting of POMW can be a good practice as it will also be helpful in recycling the useful plant nutrients and it is better than that of composting process. Present review deals with the various aspects of vermicomposting of POMW and its importance. Review also put forward the effect of potential application of vermicompost on plant growth. On the whole it looks for the possibility of vermicomposting of waste from palm oil mill as a sustainable waste management alternative.     

Climate extremes and adaptive management on the Colorado River: lessons from the 1997-1998 ENSO event.

The Colorado River system exhibits the characteristics of a heavily over-allocated or 'closing water system'. In such systems, development of mechanisms to allow resource users to acknowledge interdependence and to engage in negotiations and agreements becomes necessary. Recently, after a decade of deliberations and environmental assessments, the Glen Canyon Dam Adaptive Management Program (GCDAMP) was established to monitor and analyze the effects of dam operations on the Grand Canyon ecosystem and recommend adjustments intended to preserve and enhance downstream physical, cultural and environmental values. The Glen Canyon Dam effectively separates the Colorado into its lower and upper basins. Dam operations and adaptive management decisions are strongly influenced by variations in regional climate. This paper focuses on the management of extreme climatic events within the Glen and Grand Canyon Region of the Colorado River. It illustrates how past events (both societal and physical) condition management flexibility and receptivity to new information. The types of climatic information and their appropriate entry points in the annual cycle of information gathering and decision-making (the 'hydro-climatic decision calendar') for dam operations and the adaptive management program are identified. The study then describes how the recently implemented program, lessons from past events, and new climate information on the Colorado River Basin, facilitated responses during the major El Ni?o-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) event of 1997-1998. Recommendations are made for engaging researchers and practitioners in the effective use of climatic information in similar settings where the decision stakes are complex and the system uncertainty is large.     

LIMNOLOGY OF DUFFIN CREEK AND THE LOCATION OF CENTURY CITY1

ABSTRACT: Limnological study of Duffin Creek was carried out with the objective of evaluating the impact of the proposed location of Century City. The chemical, biological and bacteriological parameters of one branch of the Creek, which received tertiary treated effluent, were found to be fairly high. Considering the flow conditions of the Creek in relation to the total discharge of the treated effluent from the proposed Century City, it was recommended that the effluent be piped 3–4 miles downstream. The plan for Century City has since been abandoned     

Estrogenic activity in the environment: municipal wastewater effluent, river, ponds, and wetlands

Estrogenic activity of regional water samples was evaluated. Samples obtained from wetlands and ponds involved in various agricultural land uses, from three river sites over four seasons, and from municipal wastewater effluent held in storage lagoons were evaluated. The estrogen-responsive cell line MCF-7 BOS was used in the E-screen assay to determine 17beta-estradiol equivalents (E2 Eq) of water samples extracted by solid-phase extraction. Estrogenic activity in surrounding wetlands and ponds from different land uses was not different, with 10(-12) M E2 Eq (0.3 ppt). Estrogenic activity of Red River samples was within the same range as wetland-pond samples. The highest activity was found downstream from municipal wastewater treatment effluent discharge sites, in winter when river flow was lowest (approximately 6 x 10(-13) M E2 Eq). Results showed that 7 of 20 wetland-pond samples and 5 of 12 river samples were below the limits of quantitation (approximately 3 x 10(-14) M E2 Eq). Toxicity was found in fall and summer river samples upstream from municipal wastewater release sites. The timing of toxicity did not coincide to the presence of elevated fecal coliforms. Estrogenic activity in wastewater effluent from lagoons decreased over time (approximately 25 to 5 x 10(-13) M E2 Eq) with an apparent half-life of 8 d for one lagoon. The median concentration of detectable estrogenic activity in regional water samples was approximately 50-fold less than the median 17beta-estradiol concentration of estradiol detected in some U.S. streams in previous studies.     

GEOMORPHIC ANALOGIES FOR ASSESSING PROBABLE CHANNEL RESPONSE TO DAM REMOVAL1

ABSTRACT: There is a pressing need for tools to predict the rates, magnitudes, and mechanisms by which sediment is removed from a reservoir following dam removal, as well as for tools to predict where this sediment will be deposited downstream and how it will impact downstream channel morphology. In the absence of adequate empirical data, a good initial approach is to examine the impacts of dam removal within the context of the geomorphic analogies of channel evolution models and sediment waves. Channel changes at two dam breaching sites in Wisconsin involved a succession of channel forms and processes consistent with an existing channel evolution model. Sediment transported downstream after removal of other dams suggests that reservoir sediment may be translated downstream either as a distinct wave or gradually eroded away. More extensive data collection on existing dam removals is warranted before undertaking the removal of a large number of dams. However, if removal is to proceed based on current knowledge, then geomorphic analogies can be used as the foundation for sediment management and stabilization schemes.     

Quantifying the Effects of Conservation Practices on Soil,Water, and Nutrients in the Loess Mesa Ravine Region of the Loess Plateau,China

A large number of soil and water conservation programs have been implemented on the Loess Plateau of China since the 1950s. To comprehensively assess the merits and demerits of the conservation practices is of great importance in further supervising the conservation strategy for the Loess Plateau. This study calculates the impact factors of conservation practices on soil, water, and nutrients during the period 1954–2004 in the Nanxiaohegou Catchment, a representative catchment in the Loess Mesa Ravine Region of the Loess Plateau, China. Brief conclusions could be drawn as follows: (1) Soil erosion and nutrient loss had been greatly mitigated through various conservation practices. About half of the total transported water and 94.8 % of the total transported soil and nutrients, had been locally retained in the selected catchment. The soil retained from small watersheds do not only form large-scale fertile farmland but also safeguard the Yellow River against overflow. (2) Check dam was the most appropriate conservation practice on the Loess Plateau. In the selected catchment, more than 90 % of the retained soil and water were accomplished by the dam farmland, although the dam farmland occupied only 2.3 % of the total area of all conservation measures. Retention abilities of the characteristic conservation practices were in the following order: dam farmland > terrace farmland > forest land and grassland. (3) The conservation practices were more powerful in retaining sediment than in reducing runoff from the Loess Plateau, and the negative effects of the conservation practices on reducing water to the Yellow River were relatively slight.