A competing risks approach for time estimation of household WEEE disposal

The recent growth in the number of electrical and electronic devices is viewed as one the priority waste streams in European Union waste management policy. This paper presents the findings of a survey to study domestic habits with respect to Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) in Spain. A specific problem when performing this estimation arises from the fact that consumers quite often store old appliances at home when they are no longer used. Focusing on four different types of appliance, survival analysis (SA) is used to study both the usage span and the reasons for no longer using each device. The time that the discarded products were kept at home before being disposed of was studied using competing risks (CR) analysis. The results of the analysis provide information on the distribution of the studied variables for the different outcomes as well as the influence exerted by the socio-demographic variables considered. Relations between these characteristics and the storage time of the appliances before disposal emerge based on survey data. For instance, the CR model finds that the storage time of the some appliances (i.e. refrigerator) is related to these social-demographics factors. However, other appliances (i.e. microwave oven) are less influenced by these factors. The attitude and motivation of the respondents to the survey as regards the End-of-Life of appliances were also analysed. A majority of respondents do not store discarded appliances at home. The first reason for storing appliances at home is the possibility of it being useful in the future and the second that the respondents did not know what to do with them.     

Characteristics and management of infectious industrial waste in Taiwan

Infectious industrial waste management in Taiwan is based on the specific waste production unit. In other countries, management is based simply on whether the producer may lead to infectious disease. Thus, Taiwan has a more detailed classification of infectious waste. The advantage of this classification is that it is easy to identify the sources, while the disadvantage lies in the fact that it is not flexible and hence increases cost. This study presents an overview of current management practices for handling infectious industrial waste in Taiwan, and addresses the current waste disposal methods. The number of small clinics in Taiwan increased from 18,183 to 18,877 between 2003 and 2005. Analysis of the data between 2003 and 2005 showed that the majority of medical waste was general industrial waste, which accounted for 76.9%-79.4% of total medical waste. Infectious industrial waste accounted for 19.3%-21.9% of total medical waste. After the SARS event in Taiwan, the amount of infectious waste reached 19,350 tons in 2004, an increase over the previous year of 4000 tons. Waste minimization was a common consideration for all types of waste treatment. In this study, we summarize the percentage of plastic waste in flammable infectious industrial waste generated by medical units, which, in Taiwan was about 30%. The EPA and Taiwan Department of Health have actively promoted different recycling and waste reduction measures. However, the wide adoption of disposable materials made recycling and waste reduction difficult for some hospitals. It has been suggested that enhancing the education of and promoting communication between medical units and recycling industries must be implemented to prevent recyclable waste from entering the incinerator.     

Recycling and reuse of industrial wastes in Taiwan

Eighteen million metric tons of industrial wastes are produced every year in Taiwan. In order to properly handle the industrial wastes, the Taiwan Environmental Protection Administration (Taiwan EPA) has set up strategic programs that include establishment of storage, treatment, and final disposal systems, establishment of a management center for industrial wastes, and promotion of recycling and reuse of industrial wastes. The Taiwan EPA has been actively promoting the recycling and reuse of industrial wastes over the years. In July 1995 the Taiwan EPA amended and promulgated the Criteria for the Industrial Waste Storage, Collection and Processing Facility, July, 1995 that added articles related to general industrial waste recycling and reuse. In June 1996 the Taiwan EPA promulgated the Non-listed General Industrial Waste Reuse Application Procedures, June, 1996, followed by the Regulations Governing the Permitting of Hazardous Industrial Waste Reuse, June 1996, setting up a full regulatory framework for governing industrial waste reuse. To broaden the recycling and reuse of general industrial wastes, the Taiwan EPA has listed 14 industrial waste items for recycling and reuse, including waste paper, waste iron, coal ash, tempered high furnace bricks (cinder), high furnace bricks (cinder), furnace transfer bricks (cinder), sweetening dregs, wood (whole/part), glass (whole/part), bleaching earth, ceramics (pottery, brick, tile and cast sand), individual metal scraps (copper, zinc, aluminum and tin), distillery grain (dregs) and plastics. As of June 1999, 99 applications for reuse of industrial wastes had been approved with 1.97 million metric tons of industrial wastes being reused.     

Domestic waste management and recovery in Hong Kong

This article presents a review of the current municipal solid waste (MSW) and domestic waste generation and recovery situation in Hong Kong and identifies the factors affecting the waste generation rates. The results show that before 1997, MSW and domestic waste generation rates were driven by population growth and growth in the gross domestic product, with the latter having the larger effect. But recent waste generation data show poor correlation between waste generation rates and economic and population figures due to the increase in recycling efforts in the community. The results are also reported of a small-scale survey to explore the public attitude to waste recovery. The results show that most domestic householders have developed habits to carry out separation of waste at source for recycling, but the amount of recyclables recovered was low.     

Review of recycling performance indicators: A study on collection rate in Taiwan

The Taiwan Environmental Protection Administration (Taiwan EPA) launched a national Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) system after integrating eight private recycling organizations in 1998. After that, the environmental performance of the EPR system brought a lot of attention to policy makers. Many studies show positive environmental effects of the EPR system in Taiwan. However, there are controversial questions remained, such as whether the performance indicators used are the right choice to estimate the environmental effects of the recycling policy? Can those estimated results really reflect the performance of the system?This paper would therefore like to more accurately evaluate the performance indicators of the EPR system based on data observed over the past decade in Taiwan. In the process of evaluating the performance indicators, we have found that the collection rates for durable goods are often ignored in countries that pursue a zero waste policy. This may affect the actual recycling outcome and resource direction targeted by producers. However, in order for the collection rate to be adopted as a policy indicator, how to estimate the amounts of retired or waste products during a period is critical. In this paper, we estimate the collection rate for electrical and electronic waste by using the survival analysis and ownership data analysis approaches. We also provide a comparison of both approaches and put forward suggestions for directions in the future in solid waste management.     

Recent trends in recycling activities and waste management in Japan

Japan's basic approach to municipal solid waste (MSW) is (1) waste reduction, (2) promotion of recycling, (3) volume reduction by intermediate treatment, and (4) environmentally sound final disposal. A brief history of legislative trends in waste management is given as background for current waste management and recycling activities. The material recovery rate for MSW collected by local municipalities was only 5.6% in 1996. More than half of MSW, on a volume basis, consists of containers and packages, while great amounts of landfill space are also taken up by bulky wastes such as electric appliances. Therefore, in order to promote recycling and decrease landfill waste, Japan is targeting containers, packages, and electric appliances. A law promoting separate collection and recycling of containers and packages (Packaging Waste Recycling Law) and a law requiring the recycling of specific home electric appliances into new products (Home Electric Appliance Recycling Law) were introduced in June 1995 and June 1998, respectively. These laws are in line with the OECD policy Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR). Received: September 16, 1998 / Accepted: March 10, 1999     

The development and prospects of the end-of-life vehicle recycling system in Taiwan

Automobiles usually contain toxic substances, such as lubricants, acid solutions and coolants. Therefore, inappropriate handling of end-of-life vehicles (ELVs) will result in environmental pollution. ELV parts, which include metallic and non-metallic substances, are increasingly gaining recycling value due to the recent global shortage of raw materials. Hence, the establishment of a proper recycling system for ELVs will not only reduce the impact on the environment during the recycling process, but it will also facilitate the effective reuse of recycled resources. Prior to 1994, the recycling of ELVs in Taiwan was performed by related operators in the industry. Since the publishing of the “End-of-life vehicle recycling guidelines” under the authority of the Waste Disposal Act by the Environmental Protection Administration (EPA) in 1994, the recycling of ELVs in Taiwan has gradually become systematic. Subsequently, the Recycling Fund Management Board (RFMB) of the EPA was established in 1998 to collect a Collection–Disposal–Treatment Fee (recycling fee) from responsible enterprises for recycling and related tasks. Since then, the recycling channels, processing equipment, and techniques for ELVs in Taiwan have gradually become established. This paper reviews the establishment of the ELV recycling system, analyzes the current system and its performance, and provides some recommendations for future development. The reduction of auto shredder residue (ASR) is a key factor in maximizing the resource recovery rate and recycling efficiency. The RFMB needs to provide strong economic incentives to further increase the recycling rate and to encourage the automobile industry to design and market greener cars.     

Material flows of end-of-life home appliances in Japan

In Japan, the Law for the Recycling of Specified Kinds of Home Appliances came into effect in April 2001. This law aims to introduce appropriate waste treatment and promote the efficient use of resources so that we can achieve a sound material-cycle society. The law introduces a new framework for recycling that places obligations principally on the manufacturers and retailers of home appliances. Material flow analysis of this new framework is essential for evaluation of the system and for finding any problems that may exist. We therefore analyzed the material flows in facilities that recycle electrical home appliances. The mass balances in the recycling facilities were appropriately estimated. Then the potential destinations were surveyed and analyzed, even though the legal framework does not include flows after the recycling facilities. The potential destination after the facilities varies and depends on both the economy and the related regulations. Currently, considerable amounts of recovered materials are exported and recycled. However, the sustainability of these trades is unknown. Therefore, we should keep a close eye on the situation and make sure that our recycling system is adaptable to meet any future changes.     

Material and heavy metal balance in a recycling facility for home electrical appliances

Collection and recycling of home electrical appliances was started in Japan in 2001 under a new recycling law. The law is aimed at promoting material recycling and at reducing the amount of waste to be landfilled. End of life products are processed by manual disassembly, shredding, and separation in 38 recycling facilities. The authors conducted a questionnaire survey and interviewed at some facilities to obtain information on process flow and material balance. By using the detailed records offered by one facility and by estimating the composition of recovered components, the material balance in the facilities was determined for four typical recycling processes. The heavy metal content of the recovered components was analyzed, then metal flow in the process was determined for each scenario. As a result, it was concluded that emissions to the environment of most heavy metals have been substantially reduced by the new recycling system, while a modest improvement in the rate of material recovery has been achieved.     

A Study of Sustainable Material Management Approach in Taiwan

Sustainable material management (SMM) has been initiated by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) in 2005. SMM is an approach to promote resource conservation, reducing negative environmental impacts and preserving the natural capital of material and the balance of economic efficiency and social equity. Life cycle assessment and material flow analysis have been widely used to estimate the environmental impacts for resource consumption, but economic development has not been taken into account. Before 1984, improper garbage disposal was not an important issue in Taiwan. But over the past three decades, the Taiwan Government has accomplished not only waste disposal but also resource recycling, which are conducive to the essence of SMM. This study is the first research project to develop a SMM conceptual model for policy and strategy in Taiwan. SMM is the suitable waste management concept for the next era. This study reviewed the policy and strategy that has been applied in Taiwan’s waste management, and compares the efficiency of waste management policy in Taiwan with the concept of SMM. A case study of the waste flow will be used to prove that the sustainable material policy can be a suitable management system to achieve sustainable development. This study will open a new chapter of research on global SMM for Taiwan.     

Recycling-oriented characterization of small waste electrical and electronic equipment

As a result of the continuous change in the design and function of consumer electrical and electronic products, the mechanical and material properties of the obsolete products, called waste electric and electronic equipment (WEEE), are highly variable. The variability within WEEE is explained by the number of different appliances, and the heterogeneity in composition of any given appliance.This paper reports on an extended investigation of the properties of WEEE, in particular small appliances. The investigation focuses on the analysis of the composition of about 700 single appliances. Firstly, analytical methods to characterize the waste equipment are described. The results of the experimental analyses show that the mechanical properties, the material composition, the polymer composition and the chemical composition of WEEE vary not only between equipment types with different functions, but also between single appliances within one equipment type. Data on hazardous and valuable substances in selected equipment types are presented.Using detailed data on the composition of individual appliances to calculate rates of recovery for assumed recycling processes demonstrates that the performance of recycling processes depends strongly on the composition of WEEE. Recycling-oriented characterization is, therefore, a systematic approach to support the design and the operation of recycling processes.     

Applying decision-making tools to national e-waste recycling policy: An example of Analytic Hierarchy Process

As policy making is in essence a process of discussion, decision-making tools have in many cases been proposed to resolve the differences of opinion among the different parties. In our project that sought to promote a country’s performance in recycling, we used the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) to evaluate the possibilities and determine the priority of the addition of new mandatory recycled waste, also referred to as Due Recycled Wastes, from candidate waste appliances. The evaluation process started with the collection of data based on telephone interviews and field investigations to understand the behavior of consumers as well as their overall opinions regarding the disposal of certain waste appliances. With the data serving as background information, the research team then implemented the Analytic Hierarchy Process using the information that formed an incomplete hierarchy structure in order to determine the priority for recycling. Since the number of objects to be evaluated exceeded the number that the AHP researchers had suggested, we reclassified the objects into four groups and added one more level of pair-wise comparisons, which substantially reduced the inconsistency in the judgment of the AHP participants. The project was found to serve as a flexible and achievable application of AHP to the environmental policy-making process.In addition, based on the project’s outcomes derived from the project as a whole, the research team drew conclusions regarding the government’s need to take back 15 of the items evaluated, and suggested instruments that could be used or recycling regulations that could be changed in the future. Further analysis on the top three items recommended by the results of the evaluation for recycling, namely, Compact Disks, Cellular Phones and Computer Keyboards, was then conducted to clarify their concrete feasibility. After the trial period for recycling ordered by the Taiwan Environmental Protection Administration, only Computer Keyboards were referred to as the new Due Recycled Waste and their producers started to take responsibility for recycling them from 2007 onwards.     

WEEE flow and mitigating measures in China

The research presented in this paper shows that Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) issues associated with home appliances, such as TV sets, refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners, and personal computers, are linked in the WEEE flow and recycling systems and are important to matters of public policy and regulation. In this paper, the sources and generation of WEEE in China are identified, and WEEE volumes are calculated. The results show that recycling capacity must increase if the rising quantity of domestic WEEE is to be handled properly. Simultaneously, suitable WEEE treatment will generate large volumes of secondary resources. Environmental problems caused by the existing recycling processes have been investigated in a case study. Problems mainly stem from open burning of plastic-metal parts and from precious metals leaching techniques that utilize acids. The existing WEEE flow at the national level was investigated and described. It became obvious that a considerable amount of obsolete items are stored in homes and offices and have not yet entered the recycling system. The reuse of used appliances has become a high priority for WEEE collectors and dealers because reuse generates higher economic profits than simple material recovery. The results of a cost analysis of WEEE flow shows that management and collection costs significantly influence current WEEE management. Heated discussions are ongoing in political and administrative bodies as to whether extended producer responsibilities policies are promoting WEEE recycling and management. This paper also discusses future challenges and strategies for WEEE management in China.     

Forecasting quantities of disused household CRT appliances--a regional case study approach and its application to Baden-Württemberg

Due to special requirements regarding logistics and recycling, disused cathode ray tube (CRT) appliances are handled in some countries as a separate waste fraction. This article presents a forecast of future household waste CRT quantities based on the past and present equipment of households with television sets and computer monitors. Additional aspects taken into consideration are the product life time distribution and the ongoing change in display technology. Although CRT technology is fading out, the findings of this forecast show that quantities of waste CRT appliances will not decrease before 2012 in Baden-Württemberg, Germany. The results of this regional case study are not quantitatively transferable without further analysis. The method provided allows analysts to consider how the time shift between production and discard could impact recycling options, and the method could be valuable for future similar analyses elsewhere.     

Energy efficiency of substance and energy recovery of selected waste fractions

In order to reduce the ecological impact of resource exploitation, the EU calls for sustainable options to increase the efficiency and productivity of the utilization of natural resources. This target can only be achieved by considering resource recovery from waste comprehensively. However, waste management measures have to be investigated critically and all aspects of substance-related recycling and energy recovery have to be carefully balanced. This article compares recovery methods for selected waste fractions with regard to their energy efficiency.Whether material recycling or energy recovery is the most energy efficient solution, is a question of particular relevance with regard to the following waste fractions: paper and cardboard, plastics and biowaste and also indirectly metals. For the described material categories material recycling has advantages compared to energy recovery. In accordance with the improved energy efficiency of substance opposed to energy recovery, substance-related recycling causes lower emissions of green house gases.For the fractions paper and cardboard, plastics, biowaste and metals it becomes apparent, that intensification of the separate collection systems in combination with a more intensive use of sorting technologies can increase the extent of material recycling. Collection and sorting systems must be coordinated. The objective of the overall system must be to achieve an optimum of the highest possible recovery rates in combination with a high quality of recyclables.The energy efficiency of substance related recycling of biowaste can be increased by intensifying the use of anaerobic technologies. In order to increase the energy efficiency of the overall system, the energy efficiencies of energy recovery plants must be increased so that the waste unsuitable for substance recycling is recycled or treated with the highest possible energy yield.     

Status quo of e-waste management in mainland China

In China, the use and obsolescence of both electronic and electrical equipment have increased rapidly in recent years. China has also begun to take measures to cope with this problem since it began experiencing a rapid process of industrialization and urbanization in the 1990s. In this paper, the profile of the electrical and electronic waste (e-waste) problem in China is depicted from such aspects as domestic e-waste and imported e-waste, along with their recycling systems, policies, and regulations. Based on statistics of the consumption of major household appliances and personal computers, a forecast is made of the numbers of obsolete major household appliances and personal computers. The results show that currently the number of electrical and electronic products in use in China is tremendous. An investigation on household appliances and personal computers in Beijing was made to assess the use and obsolescence of these products. Also, the legal issues relating to e-waste in China are summarized, and these will be the juristic foundation for the solution of e-waste problems.     

Change in MSW characteristics under recent management strategies in Taiwan

Reduction and recycling initiatives such as producer responsibility and pay-as-you-throw are being implemented in Taiwan. This paper presents a study assessing the impact of recently implemented municipal solid waste (MSW) reduction and recycling management strategies on the characteristics of waste feedstock for incineration in Taiwan. Through the periodic sampling of two typical MSW incineration plants, proximate and ultimate analyses were conducted according to standard methods to explore the influence of MSW reduction and recycling management strategies on incineration feed waste characteristics. It was observed that the annual amount of MSW generated in 2005 decreased by about 10% compared to 2003 and that the characteristics of MSW have changed significantly due to recent management strategies. The heating value of the MSW generated in Taiwan increased yearly by about 5% after program implementation. A comparison of the monthly variations in chemical concentrations indicated that the chlorine content in MSW has changed. This change results from usage reduction of PVC plastic due to the recycling fund management (RFM) program, and the food waste as well as salt content reduction due to the total recycling for kitchen garbage program. This achievement will improve the reduction of dioxin emissions from MSW incineration. In summary, management strategies must be conducted in tandem with the global trend to achieve a zero-waste-discharge country. When implementing these strategies and planning for future MSW management systems, it is important to consider the changes that may occur in the composition and characteristics of MSW over time.     

Generation amount prediction and material flow analysis of electronic waste: a case study in Beijing, China.

The draft legislation on e-waste prepared by the Chinese national government assigns management responsibility to local governments. It is an urgent task for the municipal government to plan an effective system as soon as possible to divert the e-waste flow from the existing informal e-waste recycling processes. This paper presents a case study implemented in Beijing, the capital city of China, with the purpose of predicting the amount of obsolete equipment for five main kinds of electronic appliances from urban households and to analyse the flow after the end of their useful phase. The amount to be handled was 885,354 units in 2005 and is predicted to double by 2010. Due to consumption growth and the expansion of urbanization it is estimated that the amount will increase to approximate 2,820,000 units by 2020: 70% of the obsolete appliances will be awaiting collection for possible recycling, 7% will be stored at the owner's home for 1 year on average and 4% will be discarded directly and enter the municipal solid waste collecting system. The remaining items will be reused for about 3 years on average after the change of ownership. The results of this study will assist the waste management authorities of Beijing to plan the collecting system and facilities needed for management of e-waste generated in the near future.     

The role of intergenerational influence in waste education programmes: the THAW project

Whilst the education of young people is often seen as a part of the solution to current environmental problems seeking urgent attention, it is often forgotten that their parents and other household members can also be educated/influenced via home-based educational activities. This paper explores the theory of intergenerational influence in relation to school based waste education. Waste Watch, a UK-based environmental charity (www.wastewatch.org.uk), has pioneered a model that uses practical activities and whole school involvement to promote school based action on waste. This methodology has been adopted nationally. This paper outlines and evaluates how effective school based waste education is in promoting action at a household level. The paper outlines Waste Watch's 'Taking Home Action on Waste (THAW)' project carried out for two and half years in Rotherham, a town in South Yorkshire, England. The project worked with 6705 primary age children in 39 schools (44% of primary schools in the project area) to enable them to take the "reduce, reuse and recycle message" home to their families and to engage these (i.e. families) in sustainable waste management practices. As well as substantial increases in students' knowledge and understanding of waste reduction, measurement of the impact of the project in areas around 12 carefully chosen sample schools showed evidence of increased participation in recycling and recycling tonnages as well as declining levels of residual waste. Following delivery of the project in these areas, an average increase of 8.6% was recorded in recycling set out rates which led to a 4.3% increase in paper recycling tonnages and an 8.7% increase in tonnages of cans, glass and textiles collected for recycling. Correspondingly, there was a 4.5% fall in tonnages of residual waste. Waste Watch's THAW project was the first serious attempt to measure the intergenerational influence of an education programme on behaviour at home (i.e. other than schools' own waste). It clearly shows that household recycling behaviour can be positively impacted by intergenerational influence via a practical school-based waste education model. However, although the model could potentially have a big impact if rolled out nationally, it will require seed funding and the long-term durability of the model has not yet been fully quantified.