城市绿地系统生物多样性保护的策略探讨

生物多样性是提高城市绿地系统生态功能的前提和城市多样化景观的基础。通过保护自然遗留地,建立绿色生态网络,开发利用地带性物种,尤其是乡土植物,并有节制地引进外域特色樾的,扩大多样性物种的种群增加绿地规模,促进公园和环城绿带的自然化,营造生物多样性高的复层群落结构,形成具有地域性植被征的城市生物多样性格局提高绿地系统的生物多样性。     

城市绿地系统动态及与土地利用关系研究—以上海西南地区为例

以上海西南地区为例，对城市边缘区包括公共绿地，大田，菜地，水体等在内地城市绿地系统特征及其演变进行分析，同时将其动态与其他土地利用类型进行比较研究，并在此基础上提出城市绿地系统建设的对策，要使城市绿化不滞后于城市建设，避免今后用昂贵的代价来发展绿化，关键是城市绿化应该扩大其概念的内涵，着重从城市绿地系统的角度来发展城市绿化，同时规划在前，确保土地资源，加强绿地系统研究，以提高城市生态质量。     

遥感与GIS支持下的城市绿地信息提取方法研究--以深圳市为例

城市绿地作为城市结构中的自然生产力主体，在城市系统中起着重要作用。传统的城市绿地调查多采用人工普查并结合统计学方法进行城市绿地调查，需要投入大量的人力和资金，但得到的数据精度和现时性都较差，而采用高分辨率遥感卫星数据与地理信息系统相结合的方法，可以达到对城市绿地遥感数据的快速特征提取和准确的空间统计分析。文章采用基于遥感和GIS相结合的方法，并以深圳市为例，进行了城市绿地特征提取方法的研究和应用分析。     

城市绿地生态效果评价方法的改进

城市绿地在改善城市环境、为居民提供游憩服务等方面具有重要作用。目前衡量绿地效果的指标从总量上规定城市绿地应达到的指标，但缺乏绿地空间分布合理性的表征。本文采用景观生态学中的异质性指数和均一性指数，提出判断城市绿地分布合理程度的两种新指标。     

长春城市绿地植物群落生态脆弱度分析

以北方寒地城市长春市为例,提出城市绿地植物群落生态脆弱度计算方法,对长春城市各类绿地进行了详细的植物群落生态脆弱度分析,分别论述了景观效果、绿地结构、绿地养护及人工干扰与生态脆弱度的关系,指出建立科学合理的复合群落绿地是从根本上降低城市绿地生态脆弱度的唯一出路。     

城市绿地综合效益评价方法探讨：——天津实例应用

本文从复合生态系统理论出发，建立了城市绿地综合效益评价指标体系并将ＡＨＰ决策分析方法同模糊评价方法相结合，提出了一种城市绿地综合效益评价方法，同时，阐述了这一方法在天津的实际应用。     

论生态园林及其建设的基本原则

生态园林是城市绿地建设的新思维,也是生态学具体应用的实践.生态园林建设应遵循生态优先、物种多样性保护和重建、因地制宜、处理好种间关系、建立群落自维持机制、重视生态文化内涵等六要素.     

城市绿地滞尘作用机理和规律的研究进展

城市绿地的滞尘作用是城市绿地重要的生态功能之一。综述了城市绿地的滞尘机理、变化规律。城市绿地的滞尘机理主要分为3种方式：滞留、附着和粘附;城市绿地滞尘能力与滞尘时间、城市环境、植物种、植物群落结构等因素存在密切的联系。不同植物滞尘能力的差异很大,总体规律表现为乔木植物〉灌木植物〉草本植物;但就单位叶面积来说,滞尘能力均以草本植物〉灌木植物〉乔木植物〉藤本植物;主要原因是垂直高度不同,灌草能有效截留地面的扬尘（城市中灰尘的主要来源）。研究表明,同种类植物种在封闭式环境条件下叶片滞尘量明显低于开敞式环境条件下的滞尘量,因此,在城市不同环境中的植物滞尘能力表现为工业区〉商业交通区〉居住区〉清洁区。随着季节和滞尘时间的变化,每种植物都存在一个滞尘限度,如果无雨水或人为干扰,最终达到一个动态平衡。从城市绿地群落的垂直结构看,乔—灌—草型的绿地具有相对较好的滞尘作用,是目前较为理想的绿地类型;另外,在城市绿地面积明显不足的情况下,以藤本植物为主的垂直绿化将成为城市绿化发展的新方向。同时,在城市绿地滞尘机理、规律以及植物滞尘能力评价等方面仍需要进一步深入研究。     

城市绿地系统效益评价模型的构建与应用

从城市绿地建设水平偏低的原因分析入手，认为不具备成熟的城市绿地系统效益评价体系是主要原因。运用层次分析法，构建了城市绿地系统效益评价模型，对模型各组成部分进行了详细阐释。以模型对西安市绿地建设的影响为例，介绍了该模型的作用。最后，对模型的应用效果进行了总结，认为基于AHP法的城市绿地系统效益评价模型可有效解决城市绿地系统效益评价问题。     

城市绿地对周边热环境影响遥感研究--以北京为例

城市绿地是缓解城市热环境效应问题的主要因素之一,它不仅在宏观上影响城市区域尺度气候条件,而且在小区尺度直接影响到周边的热环境条件。本文从绿地景观格局的角度出发,利用遥感技术和地理信息技术,以北京市主城区的城市绿地作为研究对象,以绿地周边建筑物作为热环境影响承载体中介,分析了影响建筑热环境的绿地的主要景观因子,开展了城市绿地对周边热环境的影响范围、降温幅度以及绿地景观参数与降温幅度的相关关系研究。首先,从TM遥感影像上人工数字化选取了26个城市绿地斑块,同时提取了其周边建筑物像元;然后,基于定量遥感理论反演了绿地和建筑物的温度,并利用GIS工具统计了绿地和建筑的景观格局信息;最后,基于空间统计分析方法和等温线周长-温度曲线变点方法确定了城市绿地对周围建筑物热环境的影响范围,通过相关性分析探讨了城市绿地景观参数与其降温幅度之间的相关性。研究结果显示：（1）在100 m空间分辨率的尺度下,北京大部分城市绿地斑块对周边100 m范围内的建筑具有降温效应;面积在0.5 km2以上的绿地斑块,对周边100 m范围内建筑物具有明显降温效应,降温幅度在0.46~0.83℃之间,平均降温幅度为0.72℃;面积在0.5 km2以下的,具有较高植被覆盖度的绿地斑块有一定的降温效应,不具有较高植被覆盖度的绿地斑块降温效应不明显;（2）绿地斑块的周长、面积、形状指数和植被覆盖度与其周边建筑物的降温幅度没有显著的相关性。该结果表明,绿地的面积无论多大,其对周边环境的降温效应都限制在一定空间范围内;在布设城市绿地时分散型绿地比集中式大绿地对周边环境的总体降温效应更好。研究结果揭示了城市绿地对周边热环境影响的空间范围、降温幅度以及绿地景观参数与降温幅度的相关关系,可为城市规划建设及环境评价等提供科学参考。     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

Rapid,recurring, structured survey versus bioblitz for generating biodiversity data and analysis with a multispecies abundance model

A bioblitz inexpensively and quickly generates biodiversity data, but bioblitzes are often conducted with haphazard, unreplicated sampling. Results tend to be taxonomically, geographically, or temporally biased, lack metadata, and consist of lists of observed taxa that do not enable further analyses or correction for imperfect detection. A rapid, recurring, structured survey (RRSS) uses a structured sampling design and temporal and spatial replication to survey randomly selected sites on a conservation property. We participated in a loosely structured bioblitz and a subsequent RRSS at Big Canoe Creek Nature Preserve in Springville (St. Clair County), Alabama (USA) to compare observed richness derived from the 2 survey approaches. The RRSS data structure enabled us to fit models that accounted for imperfect detection to estimate abundances, occupancy probabilities, and habitat associations. The loosely structured bioblitz data could not be used in such models. We present a new integrated multispecies abundance model that we applied to avian RRSS data. Our model extension enables estimation for the community, employs data augmentation to estimate the number of undetected species, and incorporates covariates. The RRSS generated a more comprehensive and less biased list of observed taxonomic richness than the loosely structured bioblitz (e.g., 73 vs. 45 bird species and 104 vs. 63 insect families from the RRSS vs. loosely structured bioblitz, respectively). Models fit to the RRSS data identified seasonal patterns in avian community composition and allowed for estimation of habitat–occupancy relationships for insect taxa. The RRSS protocol has potential for broad transferability as a standardized, quick, and inexpensive way to inventory biodiversity and estimate ecological parameters while providing an outreach opportunity.     

Compliance with and ecosystem function of biodiversity offsets in North American and European freshwaters

Land-use change via human development is a major driver of biodiversity loss. To reduce these impacts, billions of dollars are spent on biodiversity offsets. However, studies evaluating offset project effectiveness that examine components such as the overall compliance and function of projects remain rare. We reviewed 577 offsetting projects in freshwater ecosystems that included the metrics project size, type of aquatic system (e.g., wetland and creek), offsetting measure (e.g., enhancement, restoration, and creation), and an assessment of the projects’ compliance and functional success. Project information was obtained from scientific and government databases and gray literature. Despite considerable investment in offsetting projects, crucial problems persisted. Although compliance and function were related to each other, a high level of compliance did not guarantee a high degree of function. However, large projects relative to area had better function than small projects. Function improved when projects targeted productivity or specific ecosystem features and when multiple complementary management targets were in place. Restorative measures were more likely to achieve targets than creating entirely new ecosystems. Altogether the relationships we found highlight specific ecological processes that may help improve offsetting outcomes.     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.     

A palaeo-hydrogeological model for arsenic contamination in southern and south-east Asia

An argument is presented in which areas of natural arsenic contamination of modern groundwaters throughout Asia have a common origin. Arsenic originally accumulated in oceanic ferro-manganoan sediments of the eastern Palaeo-Tethys. This was further concentrated through oceanic crustal extinction in what later became the south-east Chinese accreted mineralised terrain. Proto-Himalayan uplift of this area created the palaeo-drainage systems of the Ganges – Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy, Mekong, and Red Rivers, with consequent headwater erosion of arsenic-rich sediments. Their downstream deposition as immature and easily redistributed Neogene sandstones, silts, and iron-rich clays has created secondary and tertiary reservoirs of adsorbed and authigenic arsenic, from which the current arsenic-rich groundwaters have evolved. Considering river basins within the above palaeo-hydrogeological framework provides a basis for assessing the risk of arsenic in groundwater basins of south and south-eastern Asia.     

Sequestration of cucurbitacin analogs by New and Old World chrysomelid leaf beetles in the tribe Luperini

Summary Two South American polyphagous leaf beetles,Diabrotica speciosa andCerotoma arcuata, selectively accumulated the bitter tasting compound 23,24-dihydrocucurbitacin D in their body after ingesting root tissues of cucurbit plants. Similarly, three Asian Cucurbitaceae-feeding specialists in the genusAulacophora were found to sequester the same compound. Cucurbitacin analogs were shown to deter feeding by a bird predator, indicating an allomonal role for these compounds in cucurbitacin-associated chrysomelid leaf beetles both of New and Old Worlds. The strong affinity to cucurbitacins, selective sequestration of the analogs and consequent protection from predators suggested an ecological adaptation mechanism developed in common among these two geographically isolated subtribes in the Luperini.     

Threats to intact tropical peatlands and opportunities for their conservation

Large, intact areas of tropical peatland are highly threatened at a global scale by the expansion of commercial agriculture and other forms of economic development. Conserving peatlands on a landscape scale, with their hydrology intact, is of international conservation importance to preserve their distinctive biodiversity and ecosystem services and maintain their resilience to future environmental change. We explored threats to and opportunities for conserving remaining intact tropical peatlands; thus, we excluded peatlands of Indonesia and Malaysia, where extensive deforestation, drainage, and conversion to plantations means conservation in this region can protect only small fragments of the original ecosystem. We focused on a case study, the Pastaza‐Marañón Foreland Basin (PMFB) in Peru, which is among the largest known intact tropical peatland landscapes in the world and is representative of peatland vulnerability. Maintenance of the hydrological conditions critical for carbon storage and ecosystem function of peatlands is, in the PMFB, primarily threatened by expansion of commercial agriculture linked to new transport infrastructure that is facilitating access to remote areas. There remain opportunities in the PMFB and elsewhere to develop alternative, more sustainable land‐use practices. Although some of the peatlands in the PMFB fall within existing legally protected areas, this protection does not include the most carbon‐dense (domed pole forest) areas. New carbon‐based conservation instruments (e.g., REDD+, Green Climate Fund), developing markets for sustainable peatland products, transferring land title to local communities, and expanding protected areas offer pathways to increased protection for intact tropical peatlands in Amazonia and elsewhere, such as those in New Guinea and Central Africa which remain, for the moment, broadly beyond the frontier of commercial development.     

Effects of Controlled Fire and Livestock Grazing on Bird Communities in East African Savannas

Abstract: In East Africa fire and grazing by wild and domestic ungulates maintain savannas, and pastoralists historically set fires and herded livestock through the use of temporary corrals called bomas. In recent decades traditional pastoral practices have declined, and this may be affecting biodiversity. We investigated the effects of prescribed fires and bomas on savanna bird communities in East Africa during the first and second dry seasons of the year (respectively before and after the rains that mark the onset of breeding for most birds). We compared abundance, richness, and community composition on 9‐ha burned plots, recently abandoned bomas, and control plots in the undisturbed matrix habitat over a 3‐year period. Generally, recently burned areas and abandoned bomas attracted greater densities of birds and had different community assemblages than the surrounding matrix. The effects of disturbances were influenced by interactions between primary productivity, represented by the normalized difference vegetation index, and time. Bird densities were highest and a greater proportion of species was observed on burned plots in the months following the fires. Drought conditions equalized bird densities across treatments within 1 year, and individuals from a greater proportion of species were more commonly observed on abandoned bomas. Yearly fluctuations in abundance were less pronounced on bomas than on burns, which indicate that although fire may benefit birds in the short term, bomas may have a more‐lasting positive effect and provide resources during droughts. Several Palearctic migrants were attracted to burned plots regardless of rainfall, which indicates continued fire suppression may threaten their already‐declining populations. Most notably, the paucity of birds observed on the controls suggests that the current structure of the matrix developed as a result of fire suppression. Traditional pastoralism appears critical to the maintenance of avian diversity in these savannas.     

Cost‐effective conservation of an endangered frog under uncertainty

How should managers choose among conservation options when resources are scarce and there is uncertainty regarding the effectiveness of actions? Well‐developed tools exist for prioritizing areas for one‐time and binary actions (e.g., protect vs. not protect), but methods for prioritizing incremental or ongoing actions (such as habitat creation and maintenance) remain uncommon. We devised an approach that combines metapopulation viability and cost‐effectiveness analyses to select among alternative conservation actions while accounting for uncertainty. In our study, cost‐effectiveness is the ratio between the benefit of an action and its economic cost, where benefit is the change in metapopulation viability. We applied the approach to the case of the endangered growling grass frog (Litoria raniformis), which is threatened by urban development. We extended a Bayesian model to predict metapopulation viability under 9 urbanization and management scenarios and incorporated the full probability distribution of possible outcomes for each scenario into the cost‐effectiveness analysis. This allowed us to discern between cost‐effective alternatives that were robust to uncertainty and those with a relatively high risk of failure. We found a relatively high risk of extinction following urbanization if the only action was reservation of core habitat; habitat creation actions performed better than enhancement actions; and cost‐effectiveness ranking changed depending on the consideration of uncertainty. Our results suggest that creation and maintenance of wetlands dedicated to L. raniformis is the only cost‐effective action likely to result in a sufficiently low risk of extinction. To our knowledge we are the first study to use Bayesian metapopulation viability analysis to explicitly incorporate parametric and demographic uncertainty into a cost‐effective evaluation of conservation actions. The approach offers guidance to decision makers aiming to achieve cost‐effective conservation under uncertainty.