Sustainable wetland management strategies under uncertainties

Wetlands are widely recognized as transitional areas between terrestrial and aquatic systems. They provide multifunctional benefits, most prominently relating to the ecosystem, the economy and to scenic quality. Extensive areas of wetlands have been lost, either as a direct result of redesignation for other uses, especially industrial and recreational, or by qualitative degradation arising from water pollution. Although researchers have been involved in prolonged debate over wetland sustainable use management issues, the uncertain substitutability and irreversibility factors surrounding wetland functions have rarely been addressed. In considering policies for wetland resource management, decision rules and procedures must be adapted to reflect those uncertainties. In this study, the author incorporates the concept of the safe minimum standard of conservation approach to take account of natural and social uncertainties attending public decisions. By this approach, not only is the role of uncertain substitutability and irreversibility prioritized in addressing wetland sustainable use management strategies, but related policy implications may also be considered.     

Environmental gradients in northwest freshwater wetlands

Wetland environmental characteristics are examined to determine their spatial and temporal relationships. Two very different Oregon freshwater wetlands provided a range of wetland types. Results are evaluated to determine the possible use of environmental characteristics in defining wetlands and their boundaries. Representative physical, hydrological, and edaphic properties were periodically measured in microplots along upland/wetland transects. A multivariate approach is stressed in the data analysis; correlation, cluster analysis, and principal components analyses were used. The results indicate the environmental characteristics change in a quantifiable manner both spatially and temporally. The controlling mechanism is moisture, spatially in terms of the upland/wetland transect and temporally with respect to seasonal response. These changes do not correlate well with vegetation. Several hypotheses are offered as an explanation. Correlation within environmental characteristics is variable but definite patterns are discernible. These data suggest both single and combinations of environmental characteristics that could serve as keys in wetland identification and boundary determination. However, before extensive use is made of this information additional long-term monitoring of wetland environmental characteristics will be required.     

Management and valuation of an environmentally sensitive area: Norfolk Broadland,England, case study

Wetlands, like any other environmentally sensitive resource, require very careful evaluation. While it is accepted that all wetlands may be equally valuable in terms of maintaining global life-support systems, individual areas may be ranked according to their uniqueness or the irreplaceability of the resource should the wetland be developed. The various techniques available for evaluating the wetland resource in the development versus conservation conflict situation are critically assessed. Indirect appraisal via the opportunity cost method can generate valuable data which have contributed to the mitigation of such conflict situations.The Broadland, in Norfolk, England, recently designated an environmentally sensitive area (ESA), provides a case study example of wetland management. The search for an acceptable flood alleviation strategy for the ESA is examined in detail. The economic and environmental asset structure of the study area is examined at two levels. A basic screening system is applied to each of the identified flood protection planning units to enable the rank ordering of the units. A more detailed appraisal is then made of the value of selected units so that the cost-effectiveness of any planned expenditure on flood protection works can be assessed. Specific management issues and their likely effect on the environment, in terms of land use for example, are also addressed. The 1986 Agriculture Act marks a potential watershed in British conservation policy. The ESA policy encompasses a dual management strategy that attempts to stimulate compatible agricultural and conservation practices and activities. Other countries that still retain significant unspoiled wetland resources may find that preemptive regulatory government intervention in favor of conservation would help to avoid the worst aspects of the British experience.     

Environmental impact assessment of a proposed info-tech complex in East Calcutta wetlands

An info-tech complex is proposed for 286 acres (116 ha) of land within the East Calcutta wetlands. The proposed site is 15 km east of Kolkata city and only 8 km south of Dum Dum airport. The site is vacant, with pockets of agricultural land and a few degrading water-logged areas. In order to assess the likely impact of the proposed development on the environment, a rapid environmental impact assessment of an area of 10 km radius from the centre of the project site was carried out. The present status of the environment with respect to ambient air, surface water, groundwater, soil, landuse, noise, and socio-economics of the core and buffer zone has been documented and correlated with 24 project activities during construction, development and operational phases. The frequency of adverse impacts is greater than that of beneficial impacts. Out of the total adverse impacts 20 are short term, reversible and have a low magnitude. The total impact score for the proposed project is (–)468.75 and as per the Assessment Value Index Scale the environmental impact of the proposed project activities is no appreciable impact. But there are certain sectors where the environment will be adversely impacted. Therefore, appropriate measures have been suggested to ameliorate the adverse impacts. It is envisaged that if these measures are implemented then there will be an improvement in the quality of the environment, as well as life, by 687.5 units.     

The readability of federal land management plans

Regulations to implement the National Environmental Policy Act state that environmental impact statements shall be written in plain language. Federal land management agencies operate under this guideline when they prepare plans for their lands. We examined 23 agency plans, using the Flesch Reading Ease Scale, to determine if they met this criterion. The scores show that the plans are written for people with three to six years of college education, far beyond the reading ability of the average person. The results suggest that the plans may limit or bias who participates in agency planning. National policy on the readability of the plans needs to be clarified, and agencies need to evaluate, and defend or revise, their writing programs.     

Including past and present impacts in cumulative impact assessments

Environmental concerns such as loss of biological diversity and stratospheric ozone depletion have heightened awareness of the need to assess cumulative impacts in environmental documents. More than 20 years of experience with the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) have provided analysts in the United States with opportunities for developing successful techniques to assess site-specific impacts of proposed actions. Methods for analyzing a proposed action's incremental contribution to cumulative impacts are generally less advanced than those for project-specific impacts.The President's Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) defines cumulative impact to include the impacts of past, present and reasonably foreseeable future actions regardless of who undertakes the action. Court decisions have helped clarify the distinction between reasonably foreseeable future actions and other possible future actions. This paper seeks to clarify how past and present impacts should be included in cumulative impact analyses.The definition of cumulative impacts implies that cumulative impact analyses should include the effects of all past and present actions on a particular resource. Including past and present impacts in cumulative impact assessments increases the likelihood of identifying significant impacts. NEPA requires agencies to give more consideration to alternatives and mitigation and to provide more opportunities for public involvement for actions that would have significant impacts than for actions that would not cause or contribute to significant impacts. For an action that would contribute to significant cumulative impacts, the additional cost and effort involved in increased consideration of alternatives and mitigation and in additional public involvement may be avoided if the action can be modified so that its contributions to significant cumulative impacts are eliminated.Managed by Lockheed Martin Energy Research Corporation under contract DE-AC05-84OR21400 with the US Department of Energy.     

Flood and avalanche hazard in Colorado: Political implications of the new federalism

This article examines the likely impacts of the United States' new federalism on natural hazard land use management in Colorado. Flood and avalanche hazard programs are the focus of the study Both short- and long-term effects of changes in funding are discussed, and the conclusions summarize probable positive and negative program impacts for the state. These results may help researchers and state authorities mitigate similar effects in their states prior to the enactment of new federalism.     

Cumulative impacts on water quality functions of wetlands

The total effect of cumulative impacts on the water quality functions of wetlands cannot be predicted from the sum of the effects each individual impact would have by itself. The wetland is not a simple filter; it embodies chemical, physical, and biotic processes that can detain, transform, release, or produce a wide variety of substances. Because wetland water quality functions result from the operation of many individual, distinct, and quite dissimilar mechanisms, it is necessary to consider the nature of each individual process.Sound knowledge of the various wetland processes is needed to make guided judgements about the probable effects of a given suite of impacts. Consideration of these processes suggests that many common wetland alterations probably do entail cumulative impact. In addition to traditional assessment methods, the wetland manager may need to obtain appropriate field measurements of water quality-related parameters at specific sites; such data can aid in predicting the effects of cumulative impact or assessing the results of past wetland management.     

Use of value functions in environmental decisions

Value functions are devices that allow discrete analyses of environmental impacts to be reconciled to a single quantitative scale of preference. The values obtained can then be weighted and combined into measures of the relative desirability of policy alternatives. However, for this methodology to be valid, the set of impacts used must satisfy a number of conditions; and whether or not these are met depends on how the impacts are selected and characterized. This paper generalizes instances where the conditions may be violated and how they may be resolved, and concludes with a few thoughts on how the methodology might be adapted to the routine of bureaucracy.This work was performed under the auspices of the U.S. Department of Energy by the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory under Contract W-7405-ENG-48.     

Irrigation-Dependent Wetlands Versus Instream Flow Enhancement: Economics of Water Transfers from Agriculture to Wildlife Uses

Irrigated agriculture throughout western North America faces increasing pressure to transfer water to nonagricultural uses, including instream flows for fish and wildlife management. In an important case, increased instream flows are needed in Nebraskas Platte River for recovery of threatened and endangered fish and wildlife species. Irrigated agriculture in the Laramie Basin of southeast Wyoming is a potential water source for the effort to enhance instream flow. However, flood irrigation of hayfields in the Laramie Basin has created many wetlands, both ephemeral and permanent, over the last century. Attempting to increase Platte River instream flows by purchasing water rights or improving irrigation efficiency in the Laramie Basin would transform irrigated agriculture, causing a substantial fraction of the Laramie Basins wetlands to be lost. A creative solution is needed to prevent the sacrifice of one ecosystem on behalf of another. A rotating short-term water-leasing program is proposed. The program allows Laramie Basin producers to contribute to instream flows while continuing to support local wetlands. Permanent wetland desiccation is prevented and regional environmental water needs are met without impairing local ecological resources. Budget analysis is used to provide an initial cost estimate for acquiring water from agriculture through the short-term leasing program. The proposed approach is more expensive than traditional programs but allows contribution to instream flows without major wetland loss. Short-term leasing is a more efficient approach if benefits from wetlands exceed the difference in cost between the short-term lease program and programs that do not conserve wetlands.     

Options and limitations in fisheries management

Conclusion As a final thought, I want to conclude with the cliche that a problem recognized is half solved. Certainly, I cannot be accused of laying out a solution to solving the major fisheries management problems, but it is hoped that the problems managers face are now clearer. The complexity of fisheries assystems to be managed is clear to even the most casual observer. The second point, a broad theory of fisheries management, should provide a framework to categorize all of the disjointed activities that we associate with management of our fisheries resources.     

Wetland cultivation and hydrological management in eastern Africa: Matching community and hydrological needs through sustainable wetland use

Wetlands are critical natural resources in developing countries where they perform a range of environmental functions and provide numerous socio-economic benefits to local communities and a wider population. In recent years, however, many wetlands throughout eastern Africa have come under extreme pressure as government policies, socio-economic change and population pressure have stimulated a need for more agriculturally productive land. Although wetland drainage and cultivation can make a key contribution to food and livelihood security in the short term, in the long term there are concerns over the sustainability of this utilization and the maintenance of wetland benefits. This article draws upon recent research carried out in western Ethiopia, which addressed the sustainability of wetland agriculture in an area of increasing food insecurity and population pressure. It discusses the impacts of drainage and cultivation on wetland hydrology and draws attention to local wetland management strategies, particularly those characterized by multiple use of wetlands, where agriculture exists alongside other wetland uses. The article suggests that where multiple wetland uses exist, a range of benefits can be sustained with little evidence of environmental degradation. Ways of promoting and empowering such sustainable wetland management systems are discussed in the context of the wider need for water security throughout the region.     

Land loss in coastal Louisiana (U.S.A.)

This paper examines causes and consequences of wetland losses in coastal Louisiana. Land loss is a cumulative impact, the result of many impacts both natural and artificial. Natural losses are caused by subsidence, decay of abandoned river deltas, waves, and storms. Artificial losses result from flood-control practices, impoundments, and dredging and subsequent erosion of artificial channels. Wetland loss also results from spoil disposal upon wetlands and land reclamation projects.Total land loss in Louisiana's coastal zone is at least 4,300 ha/year. Some wetlands are converted to spoil banks and other eco-systems so that wetland losses are probably two to three times higher. Annual wetland losses in the Barataria Bay basin are 2.6% of the wetland area. Human activities are the principal determinants of land loss. The present total wetland area directly lost because of canals may be close to 10% if spoil area is included. The interrelationship between hydrology, land, vegetation, substrate, subsidence, and sediment supply are complicated; however, hydrologic units with high canal density are generally associated with higher rates of land loss and the rate may be accelerating.Some cumulative impacts of land loss are increased saltwater intrusion, loss of capacity to buffer the impact of storms, and large additions of nutrients. One measure of the impact is that roughly $8–17 × 10⁶ (U.S.A.) of fisheries products and services are lost annually in Louisiana.Viewed at the level of the hydrologic unit, land loss transcends differences in local vegetation, substrate, geology, and hydrology. Land management should therefore focus at that level of organization. Proper guideline recommendations require an appreciation of the long-term interrelations of the wetland estuarine system.     

Testing the Basic Assumption of the Hydrogeomorphic Approach to AssessingWetland Functions

The hydrogeomorphic (HGM) approach for developing "rapid" wetland function assessment methods stipulates that the variables used are to be scaled based on data collected at sites judged to be the best at performing the wetland functions (reference standard sites). A critical step in the process is to choose the least altered wetlands in a hydrogeomorphic subclass to use as a reference standard against which other wetlands are compared. The basic assumption made in this approach is that wetlands judged to have had the least human impact have the highest level of sustainable performance for all functions. The levels at which functions are performed in these least altered wetlands are assumed to be "characteristic" for the subclass and "sustainable." Results from data collected in wetlands in the lowlands of western Washington suggest that the assumption may not be appropriate for this region. Teams developing methods for assessing wetland functions did not find that the least altered wetlands in a subclass had a range of performance levels that could be identified as "characteristic" or "sustainable." Forty-four wetlands in four hydrogeomorphic subclasses (two depressional subclasses and two riverine subclasses) were rated by teams of experts on the severity of their human alterations and on the level of performance of 15 wetland functions. An ordinal scale of 1-5 was used to quantify alterations in water regime, soils, vegetation, buffers, and contributing basin. Performance of functions was judged on an ordinal scale of 1-7. Relatively unaltered wetlands were judged to perform individual functions at levels that spanned all of the seven possible ratings in all four subclasses. The basic assumption of the HGM approach, that the least altered wetlands represent "characteristic" and "sustainable" levels of functioning that are different from those found in altered wetlands, was not confirmed. Although the intent of the HGM approach is to use level of functioning as a metric to assess the ecological integrity or "health" of the wetland ecosystem, the metric does not seem to work in western Washington for that purpose.     

Determinants of Spatial and Temporal Patterns in Compensatory Wetland Mitigation

Development projects that impact wetlands commonly require compensatory mitigation, usually through creation or restoration of wetlands on or off the project site. Over the last decade, federal support has increased for third-party off-site mitigation methods. At the same time, regulators have lowered the minimum impact size that triggers the requirement for compensatory mitigation. Few studies have examined the aggregate impact of individual wetland mitigation projects. No previous study has compared the choice of mitigation method by regulatory agency or development size. We analyze 1058 locally and federally permitted wetland mitigation transactions in the Chicago region between 1993 and 2004. We show that decreasing mitigation thresholds have had striking effects on the methods and spatial distribution of wetland mitigation. In particular, the observed increase in mitigation bank use is driven largely by the needs of the smallest impacts. Conversely, throughout the time period studied, large developments have rarely used mitigation banking, and have been relatively unaffected by changing regulatory focus and banking industry growth. We surmise that small developments lack the scale economies necessary for feasible permittee responsible mitigation. Finally, we compare the rates at which compensation required by both county and federal regulators is performed across major watershed boundaries. We show that local regulations prohibiting cross-county mitigation lead to higher levels of cross- watershed mitigation than federal regulations without cross-county prohibitions. Our data suggest that local control over wetland mitigation may prioritize administrative boundaries over hydrologic function in the matter of selecting compensation sites.     

An Evaluation of Vernal Pool Creation Projects in New England: Project Documentation from 1991–2000

Vernal pools are vulnerable to loss through development and agricultural and forestry practices owing to their isolation from open water bodies and their small size. Some vernal pool-dependent species are already listed in New England as Endangered, Threatened, or Species of Special Concern. Vernal pool creation is becoming more common in compensatory mitigation as open water ponds, in general, may be easier to create than wooded wetlands. However, research on vernal pool creation is limited. A recent National Research Council study (2001) cites vernal pools as challenging to recreate. We reviewed documentation on 15 vernal pool creation projects in New England that were required by federal regulatory action. Our purpose was to determine whether vernal pool creation for compensatory mitigation in New England replaced key vernal pool functions by assessing project goals and documentation (including mitigation plans, pool design criteria, monitoring protocols, and performance standards). Our results indicate that creation attempts often fail to replicate lost pool functions. Pool design specifications are often based on conjecture rather than on reference wetlands or created pools that function successfully. Project monitoring lacks consistency and reliability, and record keeping by regulatory agencies is inadequate. Strengthening of protection of isolated wetlands in general, and standardization across all aspects of vernal pool creation, is needed to ensure success and to promote conservation of the long-term landscape functions of vernal pools.     

Utilization of Photographs for Determining Impact Indicators for Trail Management

Indicators are a key component of resource management, but selecting them can be difficult and controversial. This study explores different methods for selecting impact indicators for management of trail conditions by comparing photo survey methods (PSM) with written survey methods (WSM). A total of 661 subjects participated in interviews conducted within Mudeung- Mountain Provincial Park in Kwang-ju, Korea. PSM explained variation in acceptability better than WSM. Six major photo components (in order of importance: area of large rocks on trail, area of wood steps, area of bare roots, area of bare soil, area of small stones, and area of stone steps) explained 84.7% of the variation in acceptability of trail management conditions. This study suggests that PSM can be a useful tool for selecting impact indicators. Supported by the grant of Post-Doctoral Program, Chonbuk National University (2001)     

Wetland Mitigation Compliance in the Western Upper Peninsula of Michigan

The Army Corps of Engineers (ACE) is generally responsible for the implementation of federal Clean Water Act wetland regulations. It therefore plays an important role in the protection of wetlands within the United States. Unfortunately, past evaluators of ACEs implementation of these regulations found low rates of regulatory compliance. However, the fact that two states have taken responsibility for the implementation of these regulations within their boundaries provided the opportunity to assess whether one of these states might be doing a better job of enforcement. This paper reports on compliance with some of these regulations within one Michigan region. We evaluated permittee compliance with paperwork filing requirements related to wetland mitigation projects. Sixty-seven percent of county road commission permittees were out of compliance with at least one filing requirement. Forty percent of private and non-county government permittees were out of compliance. Our results therefore suggest that serious problems exist with Michigans implementation of wetland regulations. They do not suggest that compliance in this state is significantly better than in states under ACE administration. We believe that increased agency monitoring and enforcement would improve compliance.     

Sustainable Mining in the European Union: The Legislative Aspect

This paper is a review of the community legislation of the European Union (acquis communautaire) with regard to the mineral extractive industry. It highlights the existing inconsistencies of the acquis, which require correction. Historically, the mining industry has received privileged treatment within the European Community. The treaties declare the promotion of a policy of using natural resources prudently and rationally to avoid their unconsidered exhaustion. However, mining is excluded from the scope of major environmental directives or reserves a certain freedom for interpretation. This has led to an increasing number of related cases at the European Court of Justice.The regulatory tools of the environmental acquis are rather diverse in controlling the emission sources, the pollution pathways, and the impacted receptor media through administrative measures or assigning environmental quality targets. A combined approach is needed for controlling the environmental impacts of the extractive industries. The amendment of the Seveso II Directive, the elaboration of a reference document on best available techniques and the preparation of a wide-scope directive on mining waste management might provide a frame for the elimination of the above discrepancies. In addition, a coherent European Community policy based on the balanced consideration of economic, environmental, and social aspects could ensure a sustainable development of the mining industry. National expert detached from the Hungarian Geological Survey, H-1143 Budapest, Stefánia út 14.     

Ecological land classification: A survey approach

A landscape approach to ecological land mapping, as illustrated in this article, proceeds by pattern recognition based on ecological theory. The unit areas delineated are hypotheses that arise from a knowledge of what is ecologically important in the land. Units formed by the mapper are likely to be inefficient or irrelevant for ecological purposes unless he possesses a sound rationale as to the interactions and controlling influences of the structural components of ecosystems. Here is the central problem with what have been called objective multivariate approaches to mapping based on grid units and the sometimes arbitrary attributes thereof; they tend to conceal the importance of ecological theory and the necessity for theory-based supervision of pattern recognition. Multivariate techniques are best used iteratively to verify and refine map units initially recognized and delineated by theoretical considerations. These ideas are illustrated by an example of a reconnaissance survey in the Northwest Territories of Canada.