Measuring and Incorporating Vulnerability into Conservation Planning

Conservation planning is the process of locating and designing conservation areas to promote the persistence of biodiversity in situ. To do this, conservation areas must be able to mitigate at least some of the proximate threats to biodiversity. Information on threatening processes and the relative vulnerability of areas and natural features to these processes is therefore crucial for effective conservation planning. However, measuring and incorporating vulnerability into conservation planning have been problematic. We develop a conceptual framework of the role of vulnerability assessments in conservation planning and propose a definition of vulnerability that incorporates three dimensions: exposure, intensity, and impact. We review and categorize methods for assessing the vulnerability of areas and the features they contain and identify the relative strengths and weaknesses of each broad approach. Our review highlights the need for further development and evaluation of approaches to assess vulnerability and for comparisons of their relative effectiveness.     

Incorporating the Philosophy of Technology into Animal Welfare Assessment

Changes in attitudes towards how animals are housed in agriculture are currently under question in the public eye—particularly for laying hens. Many arguments from the rights and utilitarian viewpoints have been made for changing environmental conditions and managerial practices for animals in an effort to respect the interests of the animal and better their welfare. Yet, these arguments have been based upon belief systems that were developed from information that can be collected by human perception only. Technological advancements can facilitate animal welfare assessment by providing humans with new information about what the animal perceives. Yet, little has been discussed surrounding the thought process behind which technologies are conceived, how they are developed, and why they are implemented. Here, using the laying hen as a model, we turn to the philosophy of technology to address what role technological advancements may have in our capacity to understand animals, how technology can affect their welfare, and what role technology may play in furthering animal welfare assessment.     

Incorporating environmental issues into optimum cut-off grades modeling at porphyry copper deposits

Cut-off grade is defined as the grade which discriminates between ore and waste within a given orebody. Determination of a complete optimum cut-off grade policy is a very important function during mine life. Using the modified optimum cut-off grade model presented in this paper not only the net present value of a porphyry copper mining project is maximized, but also the adverse environmental impacts of the project are minimized simultaneously. This methodology is more effective in long-range planning. For showing the effectiveness of the model, two scenarios are considered in a hypothetical deposit and the results show that incorporating the modified optimum cut-off grade policy, the net present value will be increased by 3.6% in comparison with the Base Case.     

Incorporating Complex Adaptive Systems Theory into Strategic Planning: The Sierra Nevada Conservancy

Conservation organizations rely increasingly on integrated planning approaches that explicitly address social and economic goals while pursuing ecological conservation. Moreover, the spatial and temporal scale at which these organizations operate is growing. The Sierra Nevada Conservancy, established as a new state agency by California legislation in 2004 to pursue social, economic and ecological sustainability across a 25 million acre region, exemplifies this large-scale, integrated approach. Therefore, the new agency faces a complex set of policy objectives that must be pursued across a widely varying geography of social, economic and ecological conditions. Using the Conservancy's fire management program area as an example, the paper illustrates how application of an analytic framework from complex adaptive systems theory can guide the Conservancy to deploy its resources more effectively than broader-scale application of a single, agency-wide strategy relying on a more static model. Therefore, the complex adaptive systems framework offers promise in strategic planning. The paper illustrates how the model's four-stage cycle can be applied at the sub-regional and programmatic level to identify opportunities for agency intervention that address varying local conditions. This approach is likely to increase the effectiveness of programs for agencies facing similar complexities and challenges.     

Incorporating Variable Source Area Hydrology into a Spatially Distributed Direct Runoff Model1

Buchanan, Brian, Zachary M. Easton, Rebecca Schneider, and M. Todd Walter, 2011. Incorporating Variable Source Area Hydrology Into a Spatially Distributed Direct Runoff Model. Journal of the American Water Resources Association (JAWRA) 48(1): 43‐60. DOI: 10.1111/j.1752‐1688.2011.00594.x Abstract: Few hydrologic models simulate both variable source area (VSA) hydrology, and runoff‐routing at high enough spatial resolutions to capture fine‐scale hydrologic pathways connecting VSA to the stream network. This paper describes a geographic information system‐based operational model that simulates the spatio‐temporal dynamics of VSA runoff generation and distributed runoff‐routing, including through complex artificial drainage networks. The model combines the Natural Resource Conservation Service’s Curve Number (CN) equation for estimating storm runoff with the topographic index concept for predicting the locations of VSA and a runoff‐routing algorithm into a new spatially distributed direct hydrograph (SDDH) model (SDDH‐VSA). Using a small agricultural watershed in central New York, SDDH‐VSA results were compared to those from a SDDH model using the traditional land use assumptions for the CN (SDDH‐CN). The SDDH‐VSA model generally agreed better with observed discharge than the SDDH‐CN model (average, Nash‐Sutcliffe efficiency of 0.69 vs. 0.58, respectively) and resulted in more realistic spatial patterns of runoff‐generating areas. The SDDH approach did not correctly capture the timing of runoff from small storms in dry periods. Despite this type of limitation, SDDH‐VSA extends the applicability of the SDDH technique to VSA conditions, providing a basis for new tools to help identify critical management areas and assess water quality risks due to landscape alterations.     

Incorporating governance influences into social-ecological system models: a case study involving biodiversity conservation

Addressing environmental problems requires sophisticated approaches to complexity and uncertainty. Conceptual models are increasingly used to improve understanding of complex system interactions. However, cursory treatment of governance limits their analytical potential. This study included governance considerations in a social-ecological system model of biodiversity conservation in the Tasmanian Midlands (Australia). Effectiveness of engagement processes and conservation programme longevity were identified as critical governance influences. The conceptual representation of this system enabled exploration of how governance influences interact with social drivers (e.g. landholder engagement in conservation practices) to modify the effect of biophysical drivers (e.g. land use) on biodiversity outcomes. Such a methodology provides essential information for identifying and guiding governance related points of intervention.     

Incorporating sustainable development concerns into an urban regeneration project: how politics can defeat procedures

It is often thought that new procedural arrangements can help embed sustainable development as a policy goal into policy practice. This is the hope of tools such as environmental assessment, sustainability audits and sustainability indicators. Using a case study of urban regeneration in the London Borough of Southwark, this paper critically examines these claims. It shows how sustainable development was sidelined as a policy goal during the evaluation of the Master Plan for the area, the appraisal of individual projects for funding under the Single Regeneration Budget and the development of two local sustainability indicator projects. In each case the local political circumstances were key factors in shaping policy practice and outcomes. This leads to a re-evaluation of such procedural policy tools, emphasizing the importance of local governance contexts.     

A Simple Framework for Incorporating Seasonal Streamflow Forecasts into Existing Water Resource Management Practices1

Gong, Gavin, Lucien Wang, Laura Condon, Alastair Shearman, and Upmanu Lall, 2010. A Simple Framework for Incorporating Seasonal Streamflow Forecasts Into Existing Water Resource Management Practices. Journal of the American Water Resources Association (JAWRA) 46(3):574-585. DOI: 10.1111/j.1752-1688.2010.00435.x Abstract: Climate-based streamflow forecasting, coupled with an adaptive reservoir operation policy, can potentially improve decisions by water suppliers and watershed stakeholders. However, water suppliers are often wary of straying too far from their current management practices, and prefer forecasts that can be incorporated into existing system modeling tools. This paper presents a simple framework for utilizing streamflow forecasts that works within an existing management structure. Climate predictors are used to develop seasonal inflow forecasts. These are used to specify operating rules that connect to the probability of future (end of season) reservoir states, rather than to the current storage, as is done now. By considering both current storage and anticipated inflow, the likelihood of meeting management goals can be improved. The upper Delaware River Basin in the northeastern United States is used to demonstrate the basic idea. Physically plausible climate-based forecasts of March-April reservoir inflow are developed. Existing simulation tools and rule curves for the system are used to convert the inflow forecasts to reservoir level forecasts. Operating policies are revised during the forecast period to release less water during forecasts of low reservoir level. Hindcast simulations demonstrate reductions of 1.6% in the number of drought emergency days, which is a key performance measure. Forecasts with different levels of skill are examined to explore their utility.     

A Comparison of Contingent Valuation Methodology and Ecological Assessment as Techniques for Incorporating Ecological Goods into Land-use Decisions

Contingent valuation methodology (CVM) was used to elicit financial willingness-to-pay bids for five separate sites in southern Scotland. The sites were ranked in decreasing order of the willingness-to-pay to preserve the sites, and this ranking was compared with that obtained from an ecological evaluation of the sites. The major results of this analysis were threefold. Firstly the ranking of sites according to willingness-topay bids did not show good agreement with the ranking according to ecological assessments. Secondly the public valued the landscape, ease of access and openness of the study sites higher than species-related criteria, and finally although increased species richness appeared to provide increased utility to respondents, they were not willing to pay more for the provision of this good. These results suggest that the use of CVM for valuing ecological goods will produce different results to traditional ecological assessments. Although theoretically the provision of better information may increase the accuracy of the CVM results, this may not be easy to undertake in practice. Given these conclusions it is suggested that, given the current state of knowledge, CVM should not be utilized for aiding land-use decisions in the short term.     

Incorporating Recreational Users into Marine Protected Area Planning: A Study of Recreational Boating in British Columbia, Canada

Marine protected areas (MPAs) and zoning plans require an understanding of stakeholders if they are to be successful at achieving social and biological objectives. This study examines recreational boaters in a proposed MPA in British Columbia, Canada, using the recreation opportunity spectrum (ROS) and models of recreation conflict as a basis for investigation. Boaters (n = 543) visiting the region during the summer completed face-to-face surveys. Results show variability in boater setting preferences, supporting an ROS-based approach to MPA planning and zoning. While boaters as a whole placed the greatest importance on natural settings, sailboat operators expressed stronger preferences for natural and quiet settings relative to motorboats, and motorboat operators expressed stronger preferences for settings characterized by built facilities and extractive activities relative to sailboats. Several marine activities emerged as sources of perceived conflict for boaters, including personal watercraft, commercial whale watching vessels, and shellfish aquaculture. Our analysis indicates that while some of these may be addressed through zoning, others are better addressed through education and communication. Recommendations for both MPA management and future research are made.     

The Adaptation for Conservation Targets (ACT) Framework: A Tool for Incorporating Climate Change into Natural Resource Management

As natural resource management agencies and conservation organizations seek guidance on responding to climate change, myriad potential actions and strategies have been proposed for increasing the long-term viability of some attributes of natural systems. Managers need practical tools for selecting among these actions and strategies to develop a tailored management approach for specific targets at a given location. We developed and present one such tool, the participatory Adaptation for Conservation Targets (ACT) framework, which considers the effects of climate change in the development of management actions for particular species, ecosystems and ecological functions. Our framework is based on the premise that effective adaptation of management to climate change can rely on local knowledge of an ecosystem and does not necessarily require detailed projections of climate change or its effects. We illustrate the ACT framework by applying it to an ecological function in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (Montana, Wyoming, and Idaho, USA)-water flows in the upper Yellowstone River. We suggest that the ACT framework is a practical tool for initiating adaptation planning, and for generating and communicating specific management interventions given an increasingly altered, yet uncertain, climate.     

Carbon Sequestration Potential and Marketable Carbon Value of Smallholder Agroforestry Parklands Across Climatic Zones of Burkina Faso: Current Status and Way Forward for REDD+ Implementation

Agroforestry plays an important role in climate mitigation through atmospheric carbon removal by photosynthetic activity of tree. However, the carbon sequestration potential of smallholder’s agroforestry’s parklands is not well documented in Burkina Faso. Therefore, agroforestry parkland of smallholders’ farmers in three climatic zones was studied. Thirty household farmlands in each climatic zone representing about 35 ha were selected on which systematic woody species inventory and dendrometry data collections were undertaken. Nondestructive method using fitted allometrics equations was used to compute carbon stock. Sustainability analysis of carbon sequestration potential was done using ]0–10], ]10–40], and ]40–110 cm] diameter class as long term, medium term, and short term, respectively. The balance between marketable carbon value and the trade-off from tree conservation of three major crops was also analyzed. The results revealed 24.71 ± 5.84 tCO2 ha−1, 28.35 ± 5.84 tCO2 ha−1, and 33.86 ± 5.84 tCO2 ha−1 in Ouahigouya, Sapouy, and Bouroum-Bouroum at p < 0.1 respectively. Long- and short-term carbon sequestration potential was attributed to Ouahigouya with 1.82 and 68.03%, respectively. With, the medium term analysis Sapouy came first with 71.71% of total amount of carbon. The marketable carbon value was less than trade-off value resulting in keeping trees and crop production. The balance analysis revealed that carbon payment system promoted by REDD+ initiative will be profitable and compensable to smallholder farmers effort to plant and keep tree when the tCO2 ha−1 price will be around US$ 4.00. By taking into account farmers’ interests and profitability on carbon market will be the most relevant incentive method to enhance carbon stock in agroforestry parkland.     

Approaches to integrating indicators into 3D landscape visualisations and their benefits for participative planning situations

In discussing issues of landscape change, the complex relationships in the landscape have to be assessed. In participative planning processes, 3D visualisations have a high potential as an aid in understanding and communicating characteristics of landscape conditions by integrating visual and non-visual landscape information. Unclear is, which design and how much interactivity is required for an indicator visualisation that would suit stakeholders best in workshop situations. This paper describes the preparation and application of three different types of integrated 3D visualisations in workshops conducted in the Entlebuch UNESCO Biosphere Reserve (CH). The results reveal that simple representations of a complex issue created by draping thematic maps on the 3D model can make problematic developments visible at a glance; that diagrams linked to the spatial context can help draw attention to problematic relationships not considered beforehand; and that the size of species as indicators of conditions of the landscape's production and biotope function seems to provide a common language for stakeholders with different perspectives. Overall, the of the indicators the functions required to assist in information processing. Further research should focus on testing the effectiveness of the integrated visualisation tools in participative processes for the general public.     

Turning Scientific Approaches into Practical Conservation Actions: The Case of Comunidad Indigena de Nuevo San Juan Parangaricutiro, Mexico

Optimum natural resource management and biodiversity conservation are desirable goals. These, however, often exclude each other, since maximum economic benefits have promoted drastic reductions in biodiversity throughout the world. This dilemma confronts local stakeholders, who usually go for maximizing economic inputs, whereas other social (e.g., academic) sectors are favor conservation practices. In this paper we describe the way two scientific approaches—landscape and participatory research—were used to develop sound and durable land use scenarios. These two approaches included expert knowledge of both social and environmental conditions in indigenous communities. Our major emphasis was given to detect spatially explicit land use scenarios and capacity building in order to construct a decision support system operated by stakeholders of the Comunidad Indigena de Nuevo San Juan Parangaricutiro in Mexico. The system for decision-making was fed with data from inventories of both abiotic and biotic biodiversity components. All research, implementation, and monitoring activities were conducted in close collaboration with members of the indigenous community. As a major result we obtained a number of forest alternative uses that favor emerging markets and make this indigenous community less dependent on a single market. Furthermore, skilled members of the community are now running the automated system for decision-making. In conclusion, our results were better expressed as products with direct benefits in local livelihoods rather than pure academic outputs.