Shortfalls in minerals investments

The international minerals industry continues to have a substantial investment shortfall. The widening exploration and mineral development gaps, not only in the lesser developed countries but also in the developed nations, are sowing the seeds for future mineral supply disruptions and conflicts. Mutuality of interests demands concerted initiatives, individual as well as collective, to reverse the investment trends established by international mineral finance and the multinational corporations in order to pave the way for secure mineral supplies in the future at acceptable prices.     

Antartic minerals: A common heritage approach

The potential value of Antarctic mineral resources, including petroleum, has already spurred efforts by the Antarctic Treaty powers to establish a legal and technical regime for minerals. Management and control of Antarctic minerals need not, however, be left to the countries that have staked territorial claims or otherwise been active in Antarctica. Possible mineral regimes include open access (or first-come, first-served) and a variety of multilateral and international approaches. This article suggests that a common heritage approach would be most suitable for Antarctica and, despite opposition to such an approach among the Antarctic Treaty powers, would be a practical solution to the mineral development issue. The time for international organizations to act to establish such a common heritage regime is, however, growing short.     

The necessity to elaborate minerals policies exemplified by Romania

Mineral resources represent an integral component within a country’s economy. Despite the fact that the need for raw materials undergoes continuous growth–especially in countries which experience industrial upswing–proper measures to secure the access to domestic mineral resources in the long term have only been applied marginally in a large number of states. This lack of future-oriented legal frameworks–referred to as ‘Minerals Policies’–might lead to a diversity of sectoral problems (eg. dependency on certain raw materials imports). Based on data analysis and subsequent demand forecasting comprehensive national Minerals Policies can be derived in order to anticipate emerging issues and to achieve optimum sustainable management of domestic geological resources. The necessity of such concepts is illustrated by the example of Romania focusing on non-energetic mineral resources.     

Potentially recoverable resources: How recoverable?

There are a number of factors which are likely to limit the proportion of potentially recoverable resources that will actually be recovered. The most important of these concern the way minerals are distributed within the crust and trends in energy costs associated with mineral production. This article offers a pessimistic view of the prospects for mineral supplies early in the 21st century. The resource situation is even less hopeful when the possibility of extending the material living standards of the developed countries to everyone likely to be living on earth late next century is considered.     

Soviet non-fuel mineral resources : Surplus or scarcity?

The USSR has long been regarded as a resource-rich country with no need for external sources of non-fuel mineral resources. Increasingly, however, it is beginning to appear that such an assessment of the Soviet non-fuel mineral resource picture is overly optimistic. The Soviet mineral industry is beset by a variety of problems which complicate the extraction and utilization of needed minerals. The USSR remains a resource-rich country, but the difficulties it encounters exploiting its resources are multiplying. This article examines the Soviet aluminium, chromium, cobalt, copper, gold, iron, lead, manganese, platinum, titanium and zinc industries, and offers views of the Soviet resource future in each area.     

Water resource pricing: Policy options

This paper critically examines pricing policy options for water resources and attempts to derive an operationally feasible and socially desirable pricing structure for this important resource. Marginal cost pricing options are studied under different economic and resource conditions, such as inflation, constrained water resources and price distortions in an economy. Options such as pricing of water at its ‘real’ resource value, ‘social’ pricing, and pricing to reflect intangible benefits are also examined.     

Mineral exploration in the USSR and the USA

This article compares non-fuel mineral exploration in the USSR and the USA. It examines the organization of exploration; recent trends in the level and distribution of expenditures; exploration productivity; and planning and decision making. It shows that although the sequence of exploration stages and activities is very similar in both countries, substantial differences overshadow these similarities, largely because of different economic and political systems and mineral endowments. However, the article concludes that we still have much to learn before making a full comparison of Soviet and US exploration.     

US resources policy: The 1982 report to congress

This paper analyses the extent to which the new Reagan mineral policy will encourage increased US production, substitution, recycling and conservation, domestic stock-piling and diversification of foreign supplies. Major inadequacies of the mineral policy are the transfer of responsibility for research and development from the government to the unprepared private sector, the lack of emphasis on short-term research and development in mineral processing technology, and the lack of coordination between minerals policy and national security and foreign policy. However, overall the policy is a positive step towards reducing the current US minerals supply vulnerability.     

Investment and future mineral production

The author reviews recent estimates of world resources and reserves and notes that reserves tend to grow with mineral consumption. Legal and economic constraints to the extraction of minerals are at least as important as physical availability. The author also points out that there is far more investment in minerals (government induced investment, companies diversifying into mining, etc) than some commentators suggest. However, the large mining projects of the 1960s belong to the past, and supplies of minerals may well become tight if there is a concerted economic boom.     

Mine capacity and mineral price

The loss of foreign mineral supplies may affect domestic supply and price. To investigate the assumption that prices, a simple mine investment model that relates mine capacity to deposit attributes is used. A test of the model to see how well it approximates industry investment practice illustrates its accuracy. The model suggests that price changes can substantially affect the optimal capacity of planned or existing mines as well as the mineral supply in the USA.     

The relationship between resources and living standards

Available estimates of potentially recoverable world mineral and fuel resources are examined with a view to determining whether everyone likely to be living on earth next century could be raised to the material living standards people in developed countries now have. It is concluded that this goal is impossible. A number of fundamentally important implications follow, especially regarding the inappropriateness of growth strategies in general, goals for Third World development, and the need for ‘de-development’ of developed countries to much more frugal, self-sufficient and cooperative social systems.     

Barriers to investment in third world mineral industries

This article looks at some of the barriers that have distorted the global flow of capital in the mining industry. The perceived threat of nationalization is discussed and Chile's expropriation of US copper mining companies in 1971 is examined. Political instability, leading not only expropriation but to loss of title, altered tax laws, and voided contracts, is also cited as a factor affecting investor confidence. Finally, inadequate infrastructure is regarded as a further barrier to development of Third World mineral industries.     

Electronic waste recycling: A review of U.S. infrastructure and technology options

The useful life of consumer electronic devices is relatively short, and decreasing as a result of rapid changes in equipment features and capabilities. This creates a large waste stream of obsolete electronic equipment, electronic waste (e-waste).Even though there are conventional disposal methods for e-waste, these methods have disadvantages from both the economic and environmental viewpoints. As a result, new e-waste management options need to be considered, for example, recycling. But electronic recycling has a short history, so there is not yet a solid infrastructure in place.In this paper, the first half describes trends in the amount of e-waste, existing recycling programs, and collection methods. The second half describes various methods available to recover materials from e-waste. In particular, various recycling technologies for the glass, plastics, and metals found in e-waste are discussed. For glass, glass-to-glass recycling and glass-to-lead recycling technologies are presented. For plastics, chemical (feedstock) recycling, mechanical recycling, and thermal recycling methods are analyzed. Recovery processes for copper, lead, and precious metals such as silver, gold, platinum, and palladium are reviewed. These processes are described and compared on the basis of available technologies, resources, and material input–output systems.     

US federal tax policy: The evolution of percentage depletion for minerals

We are often tempted to believe that a nation's resource policy is the result of careful deliberation and conscious design and is articulated in a relatively few statutes. This paper traces the history of percentage depletion in the USA and finds that this particular resource policy has evolved in the absence of a recognizable master plan. Percentage depletion has developed through a continuing political tug-of-war in the US Congress as a seemingly unending array of special interest groups sought and finally gained the prize of percentage depletion for their industry.     

Understanding the dynamics and competitiveness of the South African minerals inputs cluster

South Africa has developed niche competencies around the extraction and processing of mineral resources. Firms involved in the manufacture and supply of inputs to mining and mineral processing represent a key source of competitive advantage upon which future growth and development in the country can be planned. Drawing on a qualitative and quantitative study of 678 supplier firms conducted in 2004, this paper presents an assessment of the state of the South African minerals inputs cluster. The various demand and supply relationships, dynamics, and growth opportunities within the cluster are highlighted and the threats affecting the cluster's future competitiveness reviewed. The interventions needed to overcome and/or enhance them are also identified.     

Use of system dynamics for proper conservation and recycling of aggregates for sustainable road construction

A significant amount of mineral aggregates are used in constructing, rehabilitating and maintaining roads. As local (nearby) quarries get exhausted, aggregates need to be hauled from sources that are at ever-greater distances. Hence, over time the cost of trucking as well as the amount of emissions generated by trucking increases with a decrease of local natural aggregate stocks. The objectives of this study are to construct and utilize a system dynamics model of the depletion of a stock of natural aggregates due to pavement construction and maintenance, and determine the effect of using local and nonlocal aggregates, recycling and project cancellation (slowing growth) on the paving of roads. Long-term simulations are carried out with available aggregate stock, trucking distance and cost data. The quality of roads and a sustainability score, based on engineering, economic and environmental factors (emissions) are evaluated for different scenarios. An optimal combination of the use of local and nonlocal recycled aggregates, recycling and project cancellation is recommended. The proposed system dynamics model could be utilized by agencies to plan for the proper utilization of aggregate resources for road development and maintenance/rehabilitation projects.     

Sound management of brominated flame retarded (BFR) plastics from electronic wastes: State of the art and options in Nigeria

Management of flame retarded plastics from waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) has been posing a major challenge to waste management experts because of the potential environmental contamination issues especially the formation of polybrominated-dioxins and -furans (PBDD/F) during processing. In Nigeria, large quantities of electronic waste (e-waste) are currently being managed—a significant quantity of which is imported illegally as secondhand electronics. As much as 75% of these illegal imports are never reused but are rather discarded. These waste electronic devices are mostly older equipment that contains brominated flame retardants (BFRs) such as penta-brominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs) which are presently banned in Europe under the EU WEEE and RoHS Directives. Risk assessment studies found both to be persistent, bio-accumulative and toxic. The present management practices for waste plastics from WEEE in Nigeria, such as open burning and disposal at open dumps, creates potential for serious environmental pollution. This paper reviews the options in the environmentally sound management of waste plastics from electronic wastes. Options available include mechanical recycling, reprocessing into chemicals (chemical feedstock recycling) and energy recovery. The Creasolv^® and Centrevap^® processes, which are the outcome of the extensive research at achieving sound management of waste plastics from WEEE in Europe, are also reviewed. These are solvent-based methods of removing BFRs and they presently offer the best commercial and environmental option in the sound management of waste BFR-containing plastics. Because these developments have not been commercialized, WEEE and WEEE plastics are still being exported to developing countries. The industrial application of these processes and the development of eco-friendlier alternative flame retardants will help assure sound management of WEEE plastics.     

Universities and Climate Change Mitigation: Advancing Grassroots Climate Policy in the US

While US climate change mitigation policy has stalled at the national level, local and regional actors are increasingly taking progressive steps to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions. Universities are poised to play a key role in this grassroots effort by targeting their own emissions and by working with other local actors to develop climate change mitigation programmes. Researchers at the Pennsylvania State University have collaborated with university administrators and personnel to inventory campus emissions and develop mitigation strategies. In addition, they have facilitated a stakeholder-driven climate change mitigation project in one Pennsylvania county and started an ongoing service-learning project aimed at reducing emissions in another county. These campus and community outreach initiatives demonstrate that university-based mitigation action may simultaneously achieve tangible local benefits and develop solutions to broader challenges facing local climate change mitigation efforts. Outcomes include improved tools and protocols for measuring and reducing local emissions, lessons learned about service-learning approaches to climate change mitigation, and methods for creating climate change governance networks involving universities, local governments and community stakeholders.     

Universities and Climate Change Mitigation: Advancing Grassroots Climate Policy in the US

Abstract

While US climate change mitigation policy has stalled at the national level, local and regional actors are increasingly taking progressive steps to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions. Universities are poised to play a key role in this grassroots effort by targeting their own emissions and by working with other local actors to develop climate change mitigation programmes. Researchers at the Pennsylvania State University have collaborated with university administrators and personnel to inventory campus emissions and develop mitigation strategies. In addition, they have facilitated a stakeholder-driven climate change mitigation project in one Pennsylvania county and started an ongoing service-learning project aimed at reducing emissions in another county. These campus and community outreach initiatives demonstrate that university-based mitigation action may simultaneously achieve tangible local benefits and develop solutions to broader challenges facing local climate change mitigation efforts. Outcomes include improved tools and protocols for measuring and reducing local emissions, lessons learned about service-learning approaches to climate change mitigation, and methods for creating climate change governance networks involving universities, local governments and community stakeholders.     

Environmental assessment of different management options for individual waste fractions by means of life-cycle assessment modelling

Several alternatives exist for handling of individual waste fractions, including recycling, incineration and landfilling. From an environmental point of view, the latter is commonly considered as the least desirable option. Many studies based on life-cycle assessment (LCA) highlight the environmental benefits offered by incineration and especially by recycling. However, the landfilling option is often approached unjustly in these studies, maybe disregarding the remarkable technological improvements that landfills have undergone in the last decades in many parts of the world.This study, by means of LCA-modelling, aims at comparing the environmental performance of three major management options (landfilling, recycling and incineration or composting) for a number of individual waste fractions. The landfilling option is here approached comprehensively, accounting for all technical and environmental factors involved, including energy generation from landfill gas and storage of biogenic carbon. Leachate and gas emissions associated to each individual waste fraction have been estimated by means of a mathematical modelling. This approach towards landfilling emissions allows for a more precise quantification of the landfill impacts when comparing management options for selected waste fractions.Results from the life-cycle impact assessment (LCIA) show that the environmental performance estimated for landfilling with energy recovery of the fractions “organics” and “recyclable paper” is comparable with composting (for “organics”) and incineration (for “recyclable paper”). This however requires high degree of control over gas and leachate emissions, high gas collection efficiency and extensive gas utilization at the landfill. For the other waste fractions, recycling and incineration are favourable, although specific emissions of a variety of toxic compounds (VOCs, PAHs, NO_x, heavy metals, etc.) may significantly worsen their environmental performance.