A GIS-based vulnerability assessment of coastal natural hazards,state of Pará, Brazil

Studies carried out in the NE coastal zone of the State of Pará (Brazil) have recorded, in the last 25 years, numerous evidence of natural impacts of the flood and erosion processes. As a consequence, diverse strategies and measures of population adaptation have been implemented but with limited success. Therefore, in order to subsidize the Coastal Zone Management Program of Pará, this paper aims to identify, assess and classify natural and socio-economic vulnerabilities of this coastal zone by means of a Geographical Information Systems (GIS)-based composite coastal vulnerability index (CVI). In spite of the data problems and shortcomings, using ESRI’s Arcview 3.2 program, the CVI score, to classify, weight and combine a number of 16 separate natural and socio-economic variables to create a single indicator provides a reliable measure of differences (5 classes) among regions and communities that are exposed to similar ranges of hazards. The results are presented in three maps referred to as Natural, Socioeconomic and Total Vulnerability. The confidence associated with the results obtained, the need to utilize another variables, and to frequently update the ones used already were analyzed and discussed.     

Towards a Coastal Area Management Act for the Russian Federation

Coastal area management should be considered as an element of a more general philosophy—that of natural resource management—which is in the process of replacing the purely ‘protection of the environment’ approach which was dominated most of the 20th century. Specific legislation on coastal management has been adopted by many countries, and today steps have been taken to acumulate all experience accumulated and to harmonize legal regulations on the international level. For the Russian Federation, formerly the Soviet Union, with an enormous sea-shore line to cope with, it is a new experience to develop a concept and a legal regulation specifically tackling coastal area management. The draft of a legislative act on coastal area management reflects the attempts to find ways for harmonizing various economic, environmental and social interests in this huge area, encompassing relevant Russian legislation in force as well as international conventions and treaties, and taking into considerations and treatices, and taking into consideration foregin expereience in this field.     

Dynamic preservation of the coastline in the Netherlands

In 1990, the Government and Parliament of the Netherlands decided on a new national policy for coastal defence. To ensure the enduring safety of the low-lying polders as well as the sustainable preservation of the coastal dunes, it was decided to maintain the coastline in its 1990 position. The main method for coastline preservation in the Netherlands is beach nourishment. Since 1991, approximately 7 million m³ of sand is added to the Dutch beaches annually. From an evaluation study of sand nourishment projects it is concluded that nourishment is an effective and efficient method to preserve the coastline. The evaluation study also proves that nourishment projects should be ‘tailor-made’, taking the local morphological and hydraulic conditions into account. The first results of an experimental shoreface nourishment are discussed. The choice for nourishment as the principal method to combat erosion is well in line with the intention to restore the natural dynamics of the dune-coast in the Netherlands. The key probably is a less strict policy with regard to the maintenance of the foredunes. Plans for the development of typical coastal features such as slufters^*, wash-overs, blow-outs and mobile dunes are currently under discussion. A slufter is a breakthrough in the first dune-ridge whereby the sea invades former dune slacks or beach plains situated behind the duneridge. In this way a tidal marsh is formed within the dune zone.     

Trail following in ants: individual properties determine population behaviour

This paper deals with the purposeful marking of trails as a mechanism for coordinating movement. Patterns of motion are adapted to the environmental conditions, the functions to be carried out, and the condition of the organism; therefore, the networks of trails must change both quantitatively and qualitatively over time. The nature of such changes, and how they are controlled at the individual level are discussed. In particular, we show that slight modulations in individual traits, in the trail marker, or in the size of the group can account for major changes in movement patterns at the population level such as abrupt transitions from diffuse area-covering networks to focused trunk trails. Using a mathematical model and computer (cellular automata) simulation we show that trunk trails carrying a high density of traffic can form spontaneously under suitable conditions from an initially randomly distributed group. The key to this self-organizing property stems from interactions between individuals that lead to a collective effect in recruitment to trails: the influence of small groups of individuals increases rapidly with group size. The dichotomy between high traffic (strong) trunk trails versus diffuse (weak) networks is discussed.     

The practice of coastal zone management in Portugal

The practice of coastal zone management in Portugal is very recent. Key issues and considerations about natural shoreline dynamics, main policy instruments, and lessons learned from the EU Demonstration Programmes on Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Portugal will be outlined in this paper in an attempt to understand how the practice of ICZM and its prospects are. Coastal zone management problems and their associated side effects, as well as national and international evolution patterns will be drawn. Some means of achieving better coastal zone management practices and ways of addressing some of its forefront issues are also identified. Special attention will go to erosion problems. The pressure induced by urban development and economic activities on coastal areas is increasing. Poor sediment availability combined with years of neglected management and over-exploitation of resources have had a negative impact, and there are many areas showing evidence of coastal erosion. There is a need to improve policies and instruments of coastal planning and management. Coastal zone management plans are being developed for the nine sectors of the continental Portuguese coast, providing a full analysis of coastal systems and a delimitation of uses in relation to the carrying capacity of the shoreline.     

A comparative review of coastal conservation policies in France, and England and Wales

In Europe, Britain was relatively early in being aware of the necessity of conserving natural coastal sites, though not as early as The Netherlands. In the 1960s and 1970s, increasing economic and tourist pressures in Europe prompted measures geared to the protection of other coasts in Europe. The promptness of the British reaction was a result of a sensitive public opinion and of powerful private trusts (National Trust with Enterprise Neptune) rather than of a commitment by the Government. In France a specific organization, in part inspired by the British principle, was set up. However, the French system is based much more on a public authority, theConservatoire de l’Espace Littoral et des Rivages Lacustres and on legislation (Coastal Law of 1986). Although very different in the beginning, French and British conservation politics today show many similarities, along with the similarities in the concerns of both countries.     

Coastwatch UK—a public participation survey

Education and public participation are recognized as important elements of coastal zone management. The current paper describes the Uk’s largest public participation survey concerned with coastal issues. Coastwatch UK involves thousands of volunteers in an annual survey of the coastline. The project has several aims—primarily to provide an insight into the major problems and threats to the coastline and, through the involvement of volunteers, to raise public awareness and aid environmental education at all levels.     

Integrated shoreline management and tourism development on the cross-border World Heritage Site: A case study from the Curonian spit (Lithuania/Russia)

The varied and very dynamic landscape with a high biological diversity is a distinctive feature of the Curonian spit at the regional scale. Throughout the 20th century the main morphodynamic trend in the littoral of the Curonian spit was shoreline grading on the lagoon side, whereas on the marine side the increasing erosion at the foot of the spit, and increasing accretion at the head of the spit prevailed. The results of a discriminant analysis (Wilkes’ λ = 0.001626 and F = 29.267 when p < 0.001) show that sites with prevailing erosion, accretion and sediment input from the drifting dunes form regular inter-related spatial structures in the littoral with distinctive resulting discontinuities of the sediment drift along the lagoon coast. Dune littoral cells are characterized by Aeolian sediment input and distribution ‘down-drift’, (usually northwards) from the source. The most likely changes in the current development trends of the lagoon shore zone of the Curonian spit are related to expected climate changes and further slowing down of the dune drift. The probability of storms and ice-drift events, and their impact on coasts is expected to increase as a result of climate change. The dune advance will gradually slow down, and with it, the sand input to the coastal zone will decline. In this paper, we define integrated shoreline management as a system of long-term shoreline management measures, which is based on a littoral cell approach and aimed at harmonizing human activity in the coastal zone with the natural development of the shoreline. We propose an integrated management program for the lagoon shoreline of the Curonian spit, which is site-specific for each littoral cell as a coastal management unit. Drifting dunes and seaside beaches are the natural amenities, which are best known and best appreciated on the Curonian spit by 49% of the respondents representing the total Lithuanian population. A responsible tourism development should be considered as the key means for proper appreciation of the drifting dunes and natural coasts by society, which means to acknowledge and cherish the aesthetic and conservation values of dune and coastal landscapes of the Curonian spit as a World Heritage Site. There are at least two pre-conditions for this: (1) to provide visitors with sufficient information about diverse values and functions of the Curonian dunes and coasts within a broader regional and global heritage conservation context; (2) to enable tourists to enjoy the most impressive dune and coastal landscapes at close range. In this paper we propose to encourage active dune tourism, to reintroduce grazing into the Curonian dune areas, to restore and to preserve the most impressive landscapes of the highest white drifting dunes by bringing the blown out sand from the leeward foot of the dunes back to the crest artificially.     

Sensitivity of a coupled physical–biological model to turbulence: high-frequency simulations in a northern Adriatic station

This paper investigates the impacts of different turbulence models on the biological state at an ocean station in the northern Adriatic sea, named S3, comparing them with other uncertainties inherent to coupled physical–biological simulations. The numerical tool is a 1-D model resulting from the coupling of two advanced numerical models. The hydrodynamic part is modelled using the General Ocean Turbulence Model (www.gotm.net), in a version adopting state-of-the-art second-moment Turbulence Closure Models (TCMs). Marine biogeochemistry is parameterized with the Biogeochemical Flux Model (http://www.bo.ingv.it/bfm), which is a direct descendant of ERSEM (European Regional Sea Ecosystem Model). Results, obtained by forcing the model with hourly wind and solar radiation data and assimilating salinity casts, are compared against monthly observations made at the station during 2000–2001. Provided that modern second-moment TCMs are employed, the comparisons indicate that both the physical and the biological dynamics are relatively insensitive to the choice of the particular scheme adopted, suggesting that TCMs have finally ‘converged’ in recent years. As a further example, the choice of the nutrient boundary conditions has an impact on the system evolution that is more significant than the choice of the specific TCM, therefore representing a possible limitation of the 1-D model applied to stations located in a Region of Freshwater Influence. The 1-D model simulates the onset and intensity of the spring–summer bloom quite well, although the duration of the bloom is not as prolonged as in the data. Since local dynamics appears unable to sustain the bloom conditions well into summer, phytoplankton at the station was most likely influenced by river input or advection processes, an aspect that was not found when the S3 behaviour was adequately modelled using climatological forcings. When the focus is in predicting high-frequency dynamics, it is more likely that lateral advection cannot be neglected. While the physical state can be satisfactorily estimated at these short time scales, the accurate estimation of the biological state in coastal regions still appears as rather elusive.     

“Protecting coastal zones in the Mediterranean: an economic and regulatory analysis”

This paper examines existing measures taken to protect the coastal zones of the Mediterranean Sea and assesses their success. A summary of the main pressures facing this region is given, followed by an analysis of the legislation covering coastal zone development in ten countries: Algeria, Croatia, Egypt, France, Israel, Italy, Malta, Spain, Tunisia and Turkey. The paper finds that not all of these States have legislation specifically covering coastal zones, but there is concern in all areas that existing legislation is not working. The costs and benefits of controlling coastal development are examined. Firstly, a literature review of valuation studies identifies a range of values placed on the developed and undeveloped coastline for both users and local property owners. These values were then used in a model to evaluate policy options to control development of a stretch of coastline. The model indicates that a stricter control regime of coastal development may provide significant benefits.

On the integration of science and management in coastal management research

This contribution presents an introduction to a series of papers on integrated scientific approaches presented at the San Feliu Euroconference on transdisciplinary coastal management research. Coastal management is a challenging area for the integration of social and natural sciences. The papers provide a basis for ongoing cross-disciplinary research.     

Development of rapid,cost effective coral survey techniques: tools for management and conservation planning

Coral reefs are highly dynamic and productive marine ecosystems, providing habitat and refuge for an enormous number of species including fish, invertebrates and algae. With increased anthropogenic pressures and global climate change, many coral reefs are rapidly declining. Currently, there is limited knowledge on condition and community assemblage composition of shallow fringing coral reefs along the south-eastern coast of Queensland, Australia. With increased demand to determine existence of coastal fringing reefs by National Regional Management groups, a rapid cost effective method to determine reef composition and condition was required. The aim of this study was to determine the benthic structure and extent of two small coastal fringing reefs (Hummock Hill Reef and Stringers Reef) along the Southern Great Barrier Reef. Reef substrate assessments were carried out using a rapid assessment technique and a Point Intercept Method (PIM). The data were analysed and classified using a Geographic Information System (GIS). Percent substrate cover was calculated using a visual basic image analysis program. The Point intercept method showed higher accuracy over the rapid assessment technique (up to 15–40% difference) and was thus deemed a more suitable classification tool for reefs with high structural complexity and heterogeneity. This study focused on piloting a rapid, cost effective Point Intercept Technique using random point count methodology to document coral benthic habitat and extent over a commonly used rapid assessment method as a tool for reef coastal management and conservation. The two techniques were compared and substrate classification success, limitations and errors were discussed.     

Coastal changes in the Ebro delta: Natural and human factors

The development of the delta of the River Ebro (Ebre) has, during recent centuries, been controlled by both natural and man-induced factors. Deforestation by man of the Ebro drainage basin favoured a fast progradation of the deltaic system until this century, when many dams were constructed along the river Ebro and its tributaries. As the sediment load of the river has been retained behind the dams, the river sediment discharge has been drastically reduced and erosive processes have become dominant in the Ebro delta coastal area, changing it from a river-wave to a sea-wave-dominated coast. This situation leads to a reshaping of the nearshore delta area and a redistribution of the pre-existing beach sediment, and significant erosion has already occurred in some zones. If these conditions continue in the future, severe changes will take place in the Ebro delta, in addition to the effects of a relative sea level rise. The future development of this delta may be similar to that of abandoned deltaic lobes, but faster. The present study shows, how coastal changes generated by anthropogenic factors can be faster and more drastic than those induced only by natural factors.     

Spatial analysis of traffic and risks in the coastal zone

Management of the coastal zone for the purposes of conservation and sustainability is a well-described concept in the literature. This paper describes the importance of modelling various forms of maritime traffic as an intrinsic element of this process. Effective use of GIS in this context implies extensive data acquisition and cleaning, vessel path simulation, traffic density maps, and incident (spills or accidents) distribution when applicable. Risks can be determined by evaluating detrimental occurrences relative to exposure levels. Effective visualization and quantitative analyses can then be fruitfully applied to various coastal zone management spheres, such as oceans use planning, emergency response planning, and marine protected area delineation.     

Rehabilitation of metropolitan beaches by local administrations in Catalonia: new trends in sustainable coastal management

The planning and management of coastal sites in Catalonia has been mainly concerned with rendering beaches functional for mass frequentation. This has caused serious problems for the beaches, including the alteration of dune formation processes and the destruction of beach vegetation and habitats. Municipal capacity to plan and manage beaches is theoretically very limited and relegated to the design of plans related to the maintenance of facilities for beach users. Nonetheless, a singular experience, led by a local council in the metropolitan area of Barcelona demonstrates the crucial role that a local administration can play in achieving a balance between habitat preservation and social use based on sustainable coastal management objectives, in spite of a restrictive legislation.     

Spatial assessment of sea level rise on Martinique’s coastal zone and analysis of planning frameworks for adaptation

Accelerated sea level rise and hurricanes are increasingly influencing human coastal activities. With respect to the projected continuation of accelerated sea level rise and global warming one must count with additional expenses for adaptation strategies along the coasts. On the mountainous island Martinique the majority of settlements are situated along the coast almost at sea level. But potential rises in sea level and its impacts are not addressed in coastal management, even though saltwater intrusion and coastal erosion with increasing offshore loss of sediment are locally already a severe problem. At a sea level rise of 50 cm, one fourth of Martinique’s coastline will be affected by erosion and one fifth of the islands surface will have high probability to get flooded during coastal hazards. This is a growth of 5% of the impact area in comparison to present conditions. This article analyses potential adaptation strategies and argues that the development of a coastal zone management plan considering sea level rise and its impact area is of utmost importance. Empirical assessment models in combination with spatial analysis are useful in obtaining statements about coastal impacts concerning sea level rise. This paper sees itself as recommendation of action not only for Martinique.

A coastal conservation programme for the chennai sea shore, India —A case study

The Chennai coast, an integral part of the east coast of India, extends over ca. 35 km. Over the past 120 yr the coastline has witnessed both man-made and natural disturbances which led to the destruction of the beach front. The construction of Madras harbour in 1876, was the prime cause of the degradation of this very sensitive coastal region. Continued growth of Madras harbour has helped in the natural formation of the wide ‘Marina Beach’, south of the harbour. But the shoreline north of the harbour suffered the consequences of harbour development activities. The north shore receded by ca. 500 m over the past 120 yr and received attention from the authorities in the past few decades because of the growing awareness of the conservation value of the coast. This paper highlights the effects of Madras harbour development on the adjoining coast and on the shortterm mitigation measures planned and executed by the Government agencies to protect the fragile coastline. In spite of sincere efforts to protect the coastline, the destruction continues unabated due to various reasons. This paper analyses the facts and suggests a long-term solution to protect the coastline and to regain the past glory. Feasible and cost effective permanent measures are identified, construction methods suggested and the advantages that the community can derive from the longterm solutions are discussed.