口语训练在口译语言和非语言障碍中的作用

口译工作具有艰苦而有挑战性的特点.在跨文化交际中,译员必须在克服语言障碍的同时,灵活应对非语言障碍.本文主要探讨了如何通过口语训练克服在口译过程中常出现的这种语言和非语言障碍.参8.     

商务英语E-mail邮件的写作技巧

随着因特网的发展,越来越多的人在网上使用邮件与朋友,家人聊天,甚至利用它在网上做生意.现在没有一种通讯方式能与之相比.使用E-mail邮件效率高,费用低,省时间.论述了如何正确地写好商务英语E-mail邮件.掌握这些技巧是商务活动成功的关键之一.参4.     

三唑磷在水稻籽粒中动态变化及分布特征

采用田间试验的方法,研究了不同品种水稻(内2优6号和秀水09)抽穗前,经不同浓度三唑磷(2250 m.lha-1和4500 m.lha-1)处理一次后,三唑磷在水稻籽粒中动态变化及其分布特征.试验结果表明,水稻籽粒中三唑磷含量随时间延长先增加后降低,所测数据中最高浓度出现在施药后第21天.三唑磷在水稻籽粒中的分布特征为稻壳胚乳淀粉组织糠,三唑磷主要分布在稻壳和糠中,两者总共承载了近90%的含量.其中喷施浓度为2250 m.lha-1时,内2优6号和秀水09精米中三唑磷的含量分别为0.024 m.gkg-1和0.019 m.gkg-1,均符合国家限量标准.     

不同氮磷比对藻类生长的影响

实验采用铜绿微囊藻(Microcystis aeruginosa),对其在不同氮、磷质量浓度的人工培养基中进行培养,研究不同氮磷比对藻类生长的影响.结果表明,氮磷营养盐在藻类生长过程中是重要的影响因子.在不同磷质量浓度条件下,藻类生长的最佳条件pp=O.07mg·L-1,且在磷质量浓度大于O.07 mg·L-1时,藻类生长状况要优于磷质最浓度小于0.07 mg·L-1时.在不同氮磷比条件下.藻类最佳生长条件为氮磷比等于40:1,藻类生长取决于氮的质量浓度.藻类生长对pH有重要影响.去除过量的氮磷等营养元素是防治湖泊富营养化的重要方法.     

蜡蚧轮枝菌入侵蚧虫表皮过程中蛋白酶和几丁质酶的作用

研究了蜡蚧轮枝菌两个菌株No.V3.4504和No.V3.4505感染沙里院褐球蚧的外观症状、入侵体壁的过程及胞外蛋白酶与几丁质酶的作用.结果发现.用菌株No.V3.4504的孢子悬浮液感染蚧虫2 d后,在虫体表面蜡粉稀薄的位置和柔软的虫体腹面出现了菌丝,5 d后菌丝覆盖虫体,7 d后菌丝层加厚,虫体开始死亡.显微切片观察.在体壁的外表皮、内表皮和真皮层都发现了菌丝.说明该菌已侵染成功.以蚧虫的表皮为培养基对这两个菌株连续培养8 d,发现菌株No.V3.4504的蛋白酶活性在前6天连续上升,最大值为(33.94±1.61)U/g,然后降低;几丁质酶活性在前期维持在一个较低水平,d 5开始增加,最大值为(7.28±1.36)U/g.菌株No.V3.4505的蛋白酶和几丁质酶的活性变化趋势与No.V3.4504相似.说明蛋白酶在菌丝侵染体壁的前期发挥了作用,降解表皮中的蛋白质,使几丁质暴露,诱导几丁质酶的大量产生,从而分解几丁质.图3表2参22     

螯台球菌TAD1在高温曝气生物滤池中的异养硝化-反硝化性能

初步实验证实螯台球菌(Chelatococcus daeguensis)TAD1在高温下具有异养硝化-反硝化的能力,为验证其可应用性,采用曝气生物滤池工艺,研究了TAD1在温度为50℃的异养硝化-反硝化性能.结果表明,TAD1在曝气生物滤池中可同时进行好氧反硝化和异养硝化.当分别以硝氮、氨氮及硝氮和氨氮为氮源时,12 h的氮去除率均达到100%,氮的去除能力分别为12.67 mg.L-.1h-1、3.62 mg.L-.1h-1及16.53 mg.L-.1h-1.虽然在脱氮过程中,亚硝盐在6 h迅速积累到76 mg.L-1(硝氮为氮源)和52.6 mg.L-1(硝氮和氨氮为氮源),但在随后的几个小时内又快速降低至0(检测限之外).因而,TAD1具有应用于高温生物脱氮工艺的能力和优势.     

毒死蜱在土壤中的残留和淋溶动态

对土壤中毒死蜱的残留和淋溶动态进行了研究.结果显示,毒死蜱在土壤中的残留降解属于一级动力学反应,在土壤中的降解半衰期为63.0 d.通过土柱模拟淋溶试验,对毒死蜱在土壤中淋溶的影响因子进行了研究.结果表明,降水量对毒死蜱的淋溶影响较大,主要表现为降水水量增大, 毒死蜱在土层中的最大淋溶深度也随之增加, 出现浓度最高峰的土层深度也越大, 两者呈正相关关系.与降水量相比,降水强度对毒死蜱的淋溶的影响相对较小.     

静脉留置针在院前急救及转运中的应用

目的:探讨静脉留置针在院前急救及转运中的应用.方法:对68例在院前急救及转运中使用静脉留置针的患者进行观察,分析.结果:68例患者使用静脉留置针全部一次性操作成功,无一例发生不良反应.结论:静脉留置针在院前急救及转运中的应用,具有独特的优点和实用价值.表1,参4.     

木薯皮堆肥过程中酶活性的变化

以木薯皮为原料进行高温堆肥发酵,研究了堆肥化过程中理化性质和酶活性的变化情况.结果表明:在堆肥发酵过程中.温度变化呈先上升后下降趋势,到后期已趋近于初始温度;而含水率在堆肥处理过程中变化不大.各处理的pH值在发酵结束时为7.3～7.5.过氧化氢酶活性初期较高,随后迅速降低,并维持在较低水平.纤维素酶和脲酶活性在堆肥初期增加,之后逐渐降低.由于堆肥原料不同,不同处理的酶活性变化趋势表现出一定的差异.考虑到堆肥腐熟度受多方面因素的影响,判断堆肥腐熟度时应根据多种指标(包括生物学、化学、物理学指标)综合判断.     

基于环境雌激素评估的卵黄蛋白原研究进展

卵黄蛋白原(Vitellogenin,Vtg)是卵黄蛋白(Vitellins,Vn)的前体.无脊椎动物的Vtg主要在肝胰腺、卵巢或脂肪体合成,脊椎动物主要在肝脏合成.在总结国内外相关研究基础上,对基于环境雌激素评估的Vtg研究进展进行了综述.目前的研究已经证明,Vtg的N末端氨基酸序列在动物进化中既具有高度的保守性,又具有一定的特异性.Vtg作为检测环境雌激素效应的生物标志物之一,在环境雌激素类化合物污染的评价中被广泛采用.Vtg的检测方法包括蛋白直接定量检测和mRNA定量分析,选择检测技术要依据实验设计,对于长时间的暴露实验,可通过检测蛋白来完成,短时间的暴露实验则适合半定量RT-PCR检测VtgmRNA的表达.在Vtg的检测中应考虑动物种属的特异性.     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

Rapid,recurring, structured survey versus bioblitz for generating biodiversity data and analysis with a multispecies abundance model

A bioblitz inexpensively and quickly generates biodiversity data, but bioblitzes are often conducted with haphazard, unreplicated sampling. Results tend to be taxonomically, geographically, or temporally biased, lack metadata, and consist of lists of observed taxa that do not enable further analyses or correction for imperfect detection. A rapid, recurring, structured survey (RRSS) uses a structured sampling design and temporal and spatial replication to survey randomly selected sites on a conservation property. We participated in a loosely structured bioblitz and a subsequent RRSS at Big Canoe Creek Nature Preserve in Springville (St. Clair County), Alabama (USA) to compare observed richness derived from the 2 survey approaches. The RRSS data structure enabled us to fit models that accounted for imperfect detection to estimate abundances, occupancy probabilities, and habitat associations. The loosely structured bioblitz data could not be used in such models. We present a new integrated multispecies abundance model that we applied to avian RRSS data. Our model extension enables estimation for the community, employs data augmentation to estimate the number of undetected species, and incorporates covariates. The RRSS generated a more comprehensive and less biased list of observed taxonomic richness than the loosely structured bioblitz (e.g., 73 vs. 45 bird species and 104 vs. 63 insect families from the RRSS vs. loosely structured bioblitz, respectively). Models fit to the RRSS data identified seasonal patterns in avian community composition and allowed for estimation of habitat–occupancy relationships for insect taxa. The RRSS protocol has potential for broad transferability as a standardized, quick, and inexpensive way to inventory biodiversity and estimate ecological parameters while providing an outreach opportunity.     

Compliance with and ecosystem function of biodiversity offsets in North American and European freshwaters

Land-use change via human development is a major driver of biodiversity loss. To reduce these impacts, billions of dollars are spent on biodiversity offsets. However, studies evaluating offset project effectiveness that examine components such as the overall compliance and function of projects remain rare. We reviewed 577 offsetting projects in freshwater ecosystems that included the metrics project size, type of aquatic system (e.g., wetland and creek), offsetting measure (e.g., enhancement, restoration, and creation), and an assessment of the projects’ compliance and functional success. Project information was obtained from scientific and government databases and gray literature. Despite considerable investment in offsetting projects, crucial problems persisted. Although compliance and function were related to each other, a high level of compliance did not guarantee a high degree of function. However, large projects relative to area had better function than small projects. Function improved when projects targeted productivity or specific ecosystem features and when multiple complementary management targets were in place. Restorative measures were more likely to achieve targets than creating entirely new ecosystems. Altogether the relationships we found highlight specific ecological processes that may help improve offsetting outcomes.     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.     

A palaeo-hydrogeological model for arsenic contamination in southern and south-east Asia

An argument is presented in which areas of natural arsenic contamination of modern groundwaters throughout Asia have a common origin. Arsenic originally accumulated in oceanic ferro-manganoan sediments of the eastern Palaeo-Tethys. This was further concentrated through oceanic crustal extinction in what later became the south-east Chinese accreted mineralised terrain. Proto-Himalayan uplift of this area created the palaeo-drainage systems of the Ganges – Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy, Mekong, and Red Rivers, with consequent headwater erosion of arsenic-rich sediments. Their downstream deposition as immature and easily redistributed Neogene sandstones, silts, and iron-rich clays has created secondary and tertiary reservoirs of adsorbed and authigenic arsenic, from which the current arsenic-rich groundwaters have evolved. Considering river basins within the above palaeo-hydrogeological framework provides a basis for assessing the risk of arsenic in groundwater basins of south and south-eastern Asia.     

Sequestration of cucurbitacin analogs by New and Old World chrysomelid leaf beetles in the tribe Luperini

Summary Two South American polyphagous leaf beetles,Diabrotica speciosa andCerotoma arcuata, selectively accumulated the bitter tasting compound 23,24-dihydrocucurbitacin D in their body after ingesting root tissues of cucurbit plants. Similarly, three Asian Cucurbitaceae-feeding specialists in the genusAulacophora were found to sequester the same compound. Cucurbitacin analogs were shown to deter feeding by a bird predator, indicating an allomonal role for these compounds in cucurbitacin-associated chrysomelid leaf beetles both of New and Old Worlds. The strong affinity to cucurbitacins, selective sequestration of the analogs and consequent protection from predators suggested an ecological adaptation mechanism developed in common among these two geographically isolated subtribes in the Luperini.     

Threats to intact tropical peatlands and opportunities for their conservation

Large, intact areas of tropical peatland are highly threatened at a global scale by the expansion of commercial agriculture and other forms of economic development. Conserving peatlands on a landscape scale, with their hydrology intact, is of international conservation importance to preserve their distinctive biodiversity and ecosystem services and maintain their resilience to future environmental change. We explored threats to and opportunities for conserving remaining intact tropical peatlands; thus, we excluded peatlands of Indonesia and Malaysia, where extensive deforestation, drainage, and conversion to plantations means conservation in this region can protect only small fragments of the original ecosystem. We focused on a case study, the Pastaza‐Marañón Foreland Basin (PMFB) in Peru, which is among the largest known intact tropical peatland landscapes in the world and is representative of peatland vulnerability. Maintenance of the hydrological conditions critical for carbon storage and ecosystem function of peatlands is, in the PMFB, primarily threatened by expansion of commercial agriculture linked to new transport infrastructure that is facilitating access to remote areas. There remain opportunities in the PMFB and elsewhere to develop alternative, more sustainable land‐use practices. Although some of the peatlands in the PMFB fall within existing legally protected areas, this protection does not include the most carbon‐dense (domed pole forest) areas. New carbon‐based conservation instruments (e.g., REDD+, Green Climate Fund), developing markets for sustainable peatland products, transferring land title to local communities, and expanding protected areas offer pathways to increased protection for intact tropical peatlands in Amazonia and elsewhere, such as those in New Guinea and Central Africa which remain, for the moment, broadly beyond the frontier of commercial development.     

Effects of Controlled Fire and Livestock Grazing on Bird Communities in East African Savannas

Abstract: In East Africa fire and grazing by wild and domestic ungulates maintain savannas, and pastoralists historically set fires and herded livestock through the use of temporary corrals called bomas. In recent decades traditional pastoral practices have declined, and this may be affecting biodiversity. We investigated the effects of prescribed fires and bomas on savanna bird communities in East Africa during the first and second dry seasons of the year (respectively before and after the rains that mark the onset of breeding for most birds). We compared abundance, richness, and community composition on 9‐ha burned plots, recently abandoned bomas, and control plots in the undisturbed matrix habitat over a 3‐year period. Generally, recently burned areas and abandoned bomas attracted greater densities of birds and had different community assemblages than the surrounding matrix. The effects of disturbances were influenced by interactions between primary productivity, represented by the normalized difference vegetation index, and time. Bird densities were highest and a greater proportion of species was observed on burned plots in the months following the fires. Drought conditions equalized bird densities across treatments within 1 year, and individuals from a greater proportion of species were more commonly observed on abandoned bomas. Yearly fluctuations in abundance were less pronounced on bomas than on burns, which indicate that although fire may benefit birds in the short term, bomas may have a more‐lasting positive effect and provide resources during droughts. Several Palearctic migrants were attracted to burned plots regardless of rainfall, which indicates continued fire suppression may threaten their already‐declining populations. Most notably, the paucity of birds observed on the controls suggests that the current structure of the matrix developed as a result of fire suppression. Traditional pastoralism appears critical to the maintenance of avian diversity in these savannas.     

Cost‐effective conservation of an endangered frog under uncertainty

How should managers choose among conservation options when resources are scarce and there is uncertainty regarding the effectiveness of actions? Well‐developed tools exist for prioritizing areas for one‐time and binary actions (e.g., protect vs. not protect), but methods for prioritizing incremental or ongoing actions (such as habitat creation and maintenance) remain uncommon. We devised an approach that combines metapopulation viability and cost‐effectiveness analyses to select among alternative conservation actions while accounting for uncertainty. In our study, cost‐effectiveness is the ratio between the benefit of an action and its economic cost, where benefit is the change in metapopulation viability. We applied the approach to the case of the endangered growling grass frog (Litoria raniformis), which is threatened by urban development. We extended a Bayesian model to predict metapopulation viability under 9 urbanization and management scenarios and incorporated the full probability distribution of possible outcomes for each scenario into the cost‐effectiveness analysis. This allowed us to discern between cost‐effective alternatives that were robust to uncertainty and those with a relatively high risk of failure. We found a relatively high risk of extinction following urbanization if the only action was reservation of core habitat; habitat creation actions performed better than enhancement actions; and cost‐effectiveness ranking changed depending on the consideration of uncertainty. Our results suggest that creation and maintenance of wetlands dedicated to L. raniformis is the only cost‐effective action likely to result in a sufficiently low risk of extinction. To our knowledge we are the first study to use Bayesian metapopulation viability analysis to explicitly incorporate parametric and demographic uncertainty into a cost‐effective evaluation of conservation actions. The approach offers guidance to decision makers aiming to achieve cost‐effective conservation under uncertainty.