Pay satisfaction and work–family conflict across time

On the basis of justice and exchange theories, the authors propose that employees offset their levels of work–family conflict (WFC) with their levels of pay satisfaction. Results based on two waves of data indicate that pay satisfaction has a negative relationship with WFC after controlling for actual pay and other work‐related and family‐related variables. Analysis of pay satisfaction dimensions reveals that satisfaction with benefits and pay structure are negatively related to WFC, whereas satisfaction with pay level and pay raise are not. Number of dependents and level of education moderate the relationship between pay satisfaction and WFC; specifically, having more dependents and higher education attenuates the relationship between pay satisfaction and WFC. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

On a combined theory of pay level satisfaction

For decades, research on pay level satisfaction has focused on two theories and one approach: the direct link theory, the discrepancy theory, and the no‐difference‐scores approach. However, there are still unsolved puzzles facing pay level satisfaction research. We develop a combined theory to consider the impact of the interaction of reported pay and pay discrepancy. With this newly developed theory, we expect that (a) both reported pay and pay discrepancy have main effects on pay level satisfaction; (b) reported pay and pay discrepancy also interact with each other, in that the effect of pay discrepancy on pay level satisfaction decreases as pay level increases; (c) equitable payment is more related to pay level dissatisfaction when pay level is low; and (d) overpayment in general is related to pay level satisfaction, not dissatisfaction. An empirical study (N = 481) using four types of comparison standards was conducted, and the results supported our predictions. The findings of our study have important implications for both academic research and management practice.     

Employee satisfaction in work groups with different gender composition

This study investigates the relationship between the gender composition of an employee's work group and the employee's job satisfaction, using a random sample over 1600 U.S. workers. After controlling possible confounding variables, our analysis shows that the level of an employee's job satisfaction is related to the gender composition of the employee's work group, and that the relationship of these variables does not differ between male and female employees. Both men and women working in gender-balanced groups have higher levels of job satisfaction than those who work in homogeneous groups. Employees working in groups containing mostly men have the lowest levels of job satisfaction, with those working in groups containing mostly women falling in the middle. These results are consistent with predictions based on Blau's theory of social structure, that satisfaction would be highest for employees in more heterogeneous groups. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The mentor advantage: Perceived career/job experiences of proteges versus non-proteges

Do proteges report having more positive job/career experiences than non-proteges? Do male proteges report having more favorable job/career experiences than female proteges? Do high-level proteges report having more favourable work experiences than low-level proteges? To answer these questions, mentored and non-mentored men and women in high- and low-level positions were asked to evaluate, on a survey questionnaire, their level of satisfaction, career mobility/opportunity, recognition, security and promotion rate. The extent to which these career/job experiences varied as a function of their mentored status, sex and organizational level was examined. The results of the study revealed that mentored individuals reported having more satisfaction, career mobility/opportunity, recognition and a higher promotion rate than non-mentored individuals. However, proteges' perceptions of their job/career situations were not affected by their sex or level. Whether systematic differences exist in the experience of being mentored has yet to be examined.     

Disentangling horizontal pay dispersion: Experimental evidence

Although horizontal pay dispersion has been explored extensively using cross‐sectional field methods, it has received little attention using the control available through experimental designs. Many of the questions relevant to pay dispersion research can be addressed by taking an individual‐level experimental approach because this allows for clean separation of pay policies and individual effects. In this paper, we hypothesize both the motivation‐based and affect‐based effects of pay dispersion policies and test our hypotheses with a sample of over 400 participants in a real‐pay, real‐effort experiment. Results of the experiment provide support that two pay dispersion‐related pay policies, performance‐based pay dispersion and allocation criteria, have unique effects. Whereas motivation and performance effects are direct, pay satisfaction and interest in continuing work effects are the result of interactions, incorporating the performance level of workers. In follow‐up analyses, we find evidence that the temporal nature of responses to pay dispersion should be incorporated into future studies of pay dispersion.     

Sex segregation of work in Finland and the quality of women's work

The Finnish labor market is sharply segregated by sex. This is a statistically well-documented fact and holds true for all Western European market economies. The aim of this article was to find out whether women profit (regarding the quality of their work) from performing the same sort of work as men. The qualitative aspects of work were the following: autonomy at work; lack of routinization of work; the compulsory rhythm of work; and the demands for social skills. We also analyzed monthly pay and its variation according to functional segregation of work. The empirical data came from the Finnish Study on Working Conditions (1984) which is a representative sample of the Finnish wage-earning population with 4502 persons of whom 48 per cent were women and 52 per cent men. Our results indicate that women often profit from the fact that they perform the same sort of work as men. This profit was more apparent for white-collar than for blue-collar women. For men the effects of segregation on job characteristics were the opposite. They often profit from sex segregated work. Social status played a major role regarding the qualitative aspects of work.     

Innovative work behavior and sex‐based stereotypes: Examining sex differences in perceptions and evaluations of innovative work behavior

Building on role congruity theory, we predict that innovative work behaviors are stereotypically ascribed to men more than to women. Because of this bias, women who innovate may not receive better performance evaluations than those who do not innovate, whereas engaging in innovative work behaviors is beneficial for men. These predictions were supported across 3 complementary field and experimental studies. The results of an experiment (Study 1; N = 407) revealed that innovative work behaviors are stereotypically associated with men more than women. In Studies 2 and 3, using multisource employee evaluation data (N = 153) and by experimentally manipulating innovative work behaviors (N = 232), respectively, we found that favorable performance evaluations were associated with innovative work behaviors for men but not for women. These studies highlight a previously unidentified form of sex bias and are particularly important for those wishing to increase innovative behaviors in the workplace: We need to address this phenomenon of “think innovation‐think male.”     

Work and non-work correlates of illness and behaviour in male and female Swedish white collar workers

Four broad classes of dependent variables (psychological strain, physical illness symptoms, health-related behaviour and social participation) were associated with eleven categories of stressors and stress moderators from work and family life, using multiple logistic regression analysis for a random sample of 8700 full-time male and female members of T.C.O., a major Swedish white-collar labour federation (covering 25 per cent of the Swedish labour force). Our goal was to find broad patterns of associations by comparing relative magnitudes of effects for (a) stressors and stress moderators; (b) work and family activities, and (c) males and females. Fifty per cent of the associations between environmental factors and dependent variables were significant in the predicted direction at the 5 per cent level. However, only 5 per cent of the associations are as strong, for example, as average smoking/heart disease associations. Our primary conclusion is that job factors are the next strongest set of predictors of health and behaviour after age. Job factors are stronger than family factors for both men and women; proportionally increasing the explained variance by over 60 per cent versus roughly 20 per cent for family factors (over the 25 per cent of explanation due to demographic factors). The overall pattern of stressor/outcome associations is quite similar for men and women, although both job/outcome and family burden/outcome associations are stronger for women than for men. We failed to find a clear linkage between particular stressors and particular physical illnesses. Among the job factors, control and work load have the strongest associations; with the former predicting behaviour patterns and job satisfaction (along with social support), and the latter predicting mental strain symptoms. Family problems are associated with increased health risks (stronger for men) and family responsibilities and constraints affect health behaviour (stronger for women). Job satisfaction is the most successfully predicted outcome in the study, and is similarly affected for men and women.     

Type of employment,work–family conflict and well‐being: a comparative study

The study examined the impact of work and family role characteristics on work–family conflict, and indicators of psychological well being among self‐employed and organizationally employed women and men. Results show that employment type and gender have independent main effects on several of the study variables. Self‐employed persons enjoy greater autonomy and schedule flexibility at work, and report higher levels of job involvement and job satisfaction than those employed in organizations. However, they also experience higher levels of work–family conflict, and lower family satisfaction than organizational employees. The findings suggest that there are trade‐offs between the costs and benefits of self‐employment, and that business ownership is not a panacea for balancing work and family role responsibilties. Directions for future research are discussed. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Psychological health and involvement in interpersonally demanding occupations: A longitudinal perspective

This longitudinal study examined relations among interpersonal demands of jobs and the psychological health, job and work involvements, and job satisfaction of workers. Two samples of archival data were collected between the 1940s and 1971. Workers of both sexes who were psychologically healthier in adolescence and earlier adulthood manifested greater involvement and (for men only) satisfaction later in adulthood. People in interpersonally demanding jobs showed greater involvement and satisfaction; men were more involved, but not more satisfied, than women. Older cohort members who were more psychologically healthy were more likely to enter, and remain in, interpersonally demanding jobs. However, this relationship was moderated by both chronological age and historical period, which are cohort variables that are often ignored in the occupational literature. The common practice of presuming generalizability across these dimensions may not be warranted.     

民航从业者工作负荷研究

回顾民航业特殊行业中从业者(飞行员、管制员和机务维修人员)特定的工作负荷及其测量方法,工作负荷引起压力的心理机制,以及过高的工作负荷可能对从业者生理反应和身体健康造成的负面影响,并提出了改善从业者过高工作负荷的措施和方法。与此同时,指出应该进一步研究民航从业者的工作负荷与某些组织变量(如人误、离职意向、工作满意感)的关系,这不仅可以帮助保障飞行安全、提高从业者的工作满意度,而且具有理论意义。     

Psychosocial and ergonomic survey of office and field jobs in a utility company

Introduction. The effect of different kinds of work on the psychosocial assessment of workers under the same management and organizational environment is investigated. Methods. A voluntary assessment in a utility company was carried out using the short version of the Copenhagen psychosocial questionnaire (CoPsoQ) on two occasions, 1.5 years apart. Initially, 25 office workers (11 men and 14 women) participated, while 14 of those workers (8 women and 6 men) participated in the second assessment together with 32 field workers. The sewage, water treatment and maintenance workers, totaling 32 men, also participated in a field ergonomics assessment using the Washington State Department of Labor and Industries field work ergonomic checklist. Results. The longitudinal outlook was fairly stable, with sustained severe scores in many CoPsoQ subscales and intensification of severity of workers’ control over work and esteem for men. A significantly higher esteem score resulted for field rather than office workers. Workers subjected to foul odors showed similar severity of psychosocial factors. Discussion. For most psychosocial dimensions, the organizational design and management system in place, as well as the overall cultural environment in which it operates, create a much stronger and more decisive impact than job-specific factors.     

The importance of gender in mid-career: A longitudinal study of MBAs

This longitudinal study investigates whether the work environment in mid-career is comparable for men and women MBAs. No gender differences were found in early career. However by mid-career, women report less income, career satisfaction, and boss appreciation than men. Discrimination is also more prevalent for women.     

Is it pay levels or pay raises that matter to fairness and turnover?

Two studies examined the relationship between actual pay and distributive and procedural justice, and the extent to which these perceptions were related to two important pay satisfaction dimensions, pay level and pay raise, and ultimately, impacted turnover. For each study the measures of pay and justice variables were obtained on a cross‐sectional basis, while the measure of turnover was necessarily lagged. Results showed that distributive justice mediated the relationship between pay and both pay level satisfaction and pay raise satisfaction. Furthermore, distributive justice was a stronger predictor of pay level satisfaction; whereas procedural justice was a stronger predictor of pay raise satisfaction. Procedural justice also played a moderating role in Study 2. The study also showed that only pay raise satisfaction was significantly and negatively related to turnover in Study 1, and to turnover via turnover intention in Study 2. Results support the value of considering pay satisfaction as multidimensional when evaluating justice issues in a compensation context. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

I can't get no job satisfaction: Meta‐analysis comparing permanent and contingent workers

Scholars are concerned that contingent workers experience more adverse psychological job outcomes than permanent employees, but the empirical work on job satisfaction is mixed. The purpose of this study was to quantitatively summarize the potential mean differences in job satisfaction between contingent workers and permanent employees. Meta‐analytic results from 72 primary studies (N = 237 856) suggest that compared with permanent employees, contingent workers experience lower job satisfaction (d = ?0.21); but when outlying primary studies are removed, the mean difference is small but significant (d = ?0.06). Methodological artifacts explain small but significant differences in job satisfaction but do not account for much variance. Moderator analyses support previous findings that contingent workers are not a homogeneous group; some contingent workers (e.g., agency workers) experience lower job satisfaction than permanent employees, whereas the job satisfaction of other contingent workers (e.g., contractors) is similar to permanent employees. The findings have implications for increasing our understanding of job satisfaction by showing that job satisfaction appears to vary by employment type. Practical implications suggest that extending human resource practices to contingent workers may increase their job satisfaction, which has been shown to influence job performance, citizenship behaviors, and turnover. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Relationships of gender,family responsibility and flexible work hours to organizational commitment and job satisfaction

Psychological contract theory (Rousseau, 1995) suggests that women and those with family responsibilities may negotiate new psychological contracts that include family-responsive benefits such as flexible work hours. Relationships of gender, family responsibility, and flexible work hours to organizational commitment and job satisfaction were examined among 160 matched male and female managers in a cross-organizational study. Results revealed that women who perceived their organizations offered flexible work hours reported higher levels of organizational commitment and job satisfaction than women who did not. Also, flexible work hours were related to higher organizational commitment and job satisfaction for those having family responsibilities. Implications of these results for future research and organizational policy are discussed. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Distributive and procedural justice as predictors of employee outcomes in Hong Kong

This study examines the extent to which employee judgments about distributive and procedural justice predict job satisfaction, intent to stay and evaluation of supervision in Hong Kong. Distributive and procedural justice each plays a role in determining work outcomes of Hong Kong employees. However, some effects of these justice variables differ from results of previous studies in the United States (U.S.). First, in previous U.S. studies, procedural justice moderates the relationship of distributive justice with evaluation of supervision, but not with job satisfaction or intent to stay. For Hong Kong employees, procedural justice moderates the effects of distributive justice on job satisfaction and intent to stay, but not on evaluation of supervision. Second, previous U.S. studies have shown that procedural justice has a larger effect on work outcomes for women, while distributive justice has larger effects on outcomes for men. For Hong Kong employees, the effects of procedural and distributive justice are about the same for men and women. Differences in the effects of distributive and procedural justice between Hong Kong and the U.S. may reflect cultural dimensions, such as collectivism/individualism and power distance, as well as the relative availability of rewards for women in the work force. Practical implications and future research directions are discussed. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A refutation of Karasek's demand – discretion model of occupational stress with a range of dependent measures

Karasek's (1979) demand–discretion model of occupational stress has been highly influential but has been criticized as confounding social class variables (Payne and Fletcher, 1983), ignoring the curvilinearity of relationships (Warr, 1991), and because it has inconsistently predicted heart disease (Ganster and Fusilier, 1989). The present study examines the ability of the model to predict raised blood pressure (a risk factor in the development of CHD), anxiety, depression, job and life satisfaction, in a large heterogeneous sample of over 3000 people. It examines the predictability of the model for men and women, taking occupational classification (manual and non-manual workers) into account, to allow some control over social class confounding. It also examines nonlinear relationships in the data. The study showed that demands and discretion do separately predict psychological strain, job and life satisfaction, though they account for a very small percentage of the variance. There was no evidence of interactive effects which are central to the model. Where the model was able to predict blood pressure, relationships were consistently in the opposite direction to that hypothesized. There was also little evidence of curvilinear relationships. Interpersonal support was found to add significantly to the predictability of the dependent variables. The findings cast doubt on Karasek's model and suggest that emphasis should be shifted to those models which are more encompassing of support factors.     

Explaining nursing turnover intent: job satisfaction,pay satisfaction,or organizational commitment?

A number of models have been developed to explain nurses' turnover behavior. The common theme that emerges from these models is that turnover behavior is a multistage process that includes attitudinal, decisional, and behavioral components. The purpose of this study was to assess both the direct and indirect impact of certain pay policies upon the turnover intentions of paediatric nurses. The two major questions addressed were: What was the relative impact of job satisfaction, pay satisfaction, and organizational commitment upon the turnover intentions of paediatric nurses eligible for these pay policies? What model accurately portrays the relationship among these three independent variables and turnover intentions? Exploration of the causal pathways among these variables and demographic factors revealed complex models of association. The results suggest that job satisfaction has only an indirect influence on the intention to quit, whereas organizational commitment has the strongest and most direct impact. A further finding that pay satisfaction had both direct and indirect effects on turnover intent was consistent with administrators' assumptions underlying the pay policies. Control variables such as having a degree, having children, and working 12-hour shifts were found to have both direct and indirect influences upon pay satisfaction and turnover intent. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Prevalence of work-family conflict: Are work and family boundaries asymmetrically permeable?

This study tested Pleck's (1977) hypothesis concerning gender differences in the relative permeability of work and family boundaries. Data were obtained from a randomly drawn community sample of 631 employed adults (278 men; 353 women). Respondents reported that work interfered with family life (W→F conflict) more frequently than family life interfered with work (F→W conflict). These results suggest that work and family boundaries are indeed asymmetrically permeable with family boundaries being more permeable than work boundaries. However, there was no evidence of gender differences in the pattern of asymmetry, indicating that the dynamics of work and family boundaries may operate similarly among men and women. Implications for future research are discussed.