Self‐esteem,appraisal and coping: a comparison of unemployed and re‐employed people

The negative effects of unemployment on psychological health are well documented, yet Kasl's ( 1982 ) reverse causation hypothesis is that positive psychological health, and in particular self‐esteem, facilitates re‐employment. The aim of this study was to investigate this proposal by assessing levels of self‐esteem, cognitive appraisals and coping efforts among unemployed persons and relating these factors to their employment status six months later. Two hundred and one unemployed (49 per cent female, 51 per cent male; mean age = 32.41 ± 10.18 years) and 128 employed respondents (59 per cent female, 41 per cent male; mean age = 35.0 ± 11.73 years) participated in the study. Participants completed the Adult Self‐Perception Profile, Access to Categories of Experience, Locus of Control, Deakin Coping Scale, and the Meaningful Leisure Activities Questionnaire at baseline and at six‐month follow‐up using a mail‐out survey. Comparison of baseline appraisals revealed that future re‐employed participants rated their latent deprivation lower and their internal locus of control higher than those continuously unemployed, and they also derived more internal meaning from leisure activities. Overall, the results provide support for Kasl's reverse causation hypothesis extended to these other domains of psychological health. Intervention strategies designed to incorporate the promotion of these factors are discussed. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Masters of the long haul: Pursuing long‐term work goals

We investigate work motivation in the unstudied domain of individuals who pursue very long‐term goals. We highlight the fact that the preponderance of research findings on the psychology of work motivation is based on short‐term studies and discuss the potential relevance to long‐term motivation of literatures including long‐term thinking and time horizons, long‐term goals and goal pursuit, and self‐regulation. We adopt the qualitative research strategy of theory elaboration, with a specific intention of elaborating goal‐setting theory. Analysis of interview data from a unique sample of scientists and others pursuing goals spanning decades or more yielded a structure of psychological factors that can enhance, support, and sustain motivation for the long term. Reconciling our findings with existing goal theories, we develop an integrative model of motivating factors and self‐regulation processes underlying long‐term goal pursuit. We discuss the implications, including an expanded focus for our field on motivating people for the long run. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A moderated mediation test of personality,coping, and health among deployed soldiers

Our study examines how personality and coping influence soldiers' psychological health among 648 US Army personnel who were at that time deployed in Iraq at the height of an insurgency. Conscientiousness, neuroticism, and extraversion were associated with different coping behaviors, and these were in turn related to psychological distress. Conscientiousness was positively associated with problem‐focused coping and negatively with avoidance coping, whereas neuroticism was most positively associated with avoidance coping. Extraversion was positively related to both seeking social support and avoidance coping. As expected, avoidance coping was positively associated with psychological distress. Coping style explained more variance in the relationship between personality and distress among soldiers who perceived higher levels of threat, thus supporting a moderated mediation hypothesis. We discuss implications for facilitating the stress coping of workers who face acute and potentially traumatic stress exposures. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Lying in negotiations: how individual and situational factors influence the use of neutralization strategies

Lying in negotiations can cause negative emotions, so participants may use neutralization strategies to reduce these feelings. We conducted a 2 (ethical versus non‐ethical climate) × 2 (low versus high negative consequences) experiment to examine how individual and situational factors affect the use of three such strategies: minimizing the lie, denigration of the target, and denial. Lying, psychological distress, and self‐perceived moral attributes were measured as non‐manipulated independent variables. One hundred and ninety‐two MBA students participated in a business negotiation in which they were provided with incentives to lie. As predicted, higher distress was associated with greater denial of lies. In addition, climate and consequences interacted to affect minimization and liars engaged in less minimization than did participants who merely concealed information. Climate and moral attributes interacted to affect denigration. We believe these findings support further study of neutralization strategies in the workplace. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Political behaviors as moderators of the perceptions of organizational politics—work outcomes relationships

This study investigates the complexities involved in the relationships between perceptions of politics and work outcomes by examining the effects of political behavior on that relationship. More specifically, we suggest that political behavior may serve as a form of control or as a mechanism for coping with highly political organizational environments perceived by individuals to be aversive. As such, we propose moderating roles of self‐promotion and ingratiation on the relationships between perceptions of politics and the work outcomes of satisfaction with job in general, satisfaction with supervision, and intent to leave. It was hypothesized that increased exercise of self‐promotion and ingratiation behaviors would mitigate the negative effects of perceptions of organizational politics on those specific outcomes. Hypotheses were supported for the proposed relationships between self‐promotion and two of the work outcomes: satisfaction with supervision and intent to leave. Significant effects were also found for ingratiation; however, they were opposite to those proposed for the perceptions of organizational politics–intent to leave relationship. Implications of results and areas for future research are discussed. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Recovery from work‐related effort: A meta‐analysis

This meta‐analytic study examines the antecedents and outcomes of four recovery experiences: psychological detachment, relaxation, mastery, and control. Using 299 effect sizes from 54 independent samples (N = 26,592), we extend theory by integrating recovery experiences into the challenge–hindrance framework, creating a more comprehensive understanding of how both after‐work recovery and work characteristics collectively relate to well‐being. The results of meta‐analytic path estimates indicate that challenge demands have stronger negative relationships with psychological detachment, relaxation, and control recovery experiences than hindrance demands, and job resources have positive relationships with relaxation, mastery, and control recovery experiences. Psychological detachment after work has a stronger negative relationship with fatigue than relaxation or control experiences, whereas control experiences after work have a stronger positive relationship with vigor than detachment or relaxation experiences. Additionally, a temporally driven model with recovery experiences as a partial mediator explains up to 62% more variance in outcomes (ΔR² = .12) beyond work characteristics models, implying that both work characteristics and after‐work recovery play an important role in determining employee well‐being.     

The psychological contracts of violation victims: A post‐violation model

Organizations may fail to keep their commitments to their employees, at times leading to psychological contract violation. Although many victims of violation remain with their employer despite such adverse experiences, little research exists on their responses in the aftermath of violation. This paper develops a post‐violation model to explain systematically how violation victims respond to and cope with violation and the effects this process has on their subsequent psychological contract. Central to post‐violation are the victims' beliefs regarding the likelihood of violation resolution and the factors affecting it. The model specifies how the victim engages in a self‐regulation process that results in an array of potential psychological contract outcomes. Possible outcomes include reactivation of the original pre‐violation contract, the formation of a new contract that may be more or less attractive than the original, or a state of dissolution wherein the victim fails to form a functional psychological contract with the employer. The research and practical implications of this model are discussed. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Leadership,followers' mental health and job performance in organizations: A comprehensive meta‐analysis from an occupational health perspective

The present meta‐analysis investigates the associations between leadership, followers' mental health, and job performance by taking into account different groups of leadership constructs including transformational leadership, relations‐oriented leadership, task‐oriented leadership, destructive leadership, and leader–member exchange. Six categories of mental health‐related outcomes are considered representing both negative and positive mental health states of followers, namely, affective symptoms, burnout, stress, well‐being, psychological functioning, and health complaints. Meta‐analytic models are used to estimate the association between these categories of leadership and mental health. Our results reveal that transformational leadership, a high quality of relations‐oriented and task‐oriented leadership behavior, as well as a high quality of leader–follower interaction are positively associated with mental health. In contrast, destructive leadership is strongly negatively associated with mental health. In addition, the mediation effects of leadership on job performance via mental health are estimated. Results partially support the mediating role of mental health concerning the relationship between leadership and job performance. Our results emphasize the importance of leadership as an occupational health factor, and they may serve as basis for the planning and designing of occupational health policies and interventions despite existing research limitations. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Pre‐training perceived social self‐efficacy accentuates the effects of a cross‐cultural coping orientation program: Evidence from a longitudinal field experiment

Analyzing additional data from a longitudinal field experiment, the present research investigate whether pre‐training perceived social self‐efficacy (PSSE) may moderate cross‐cultural training effectiveness. On the basis of the interactionist perspective, we hypothesized that sojourners with high pre‐training PSSE would benefit more from a cross‐cultural coping orientation program, called “Realistic Orientation Program for Entry Stress” (ROPES), than sojourners with low pre‐training PSSE. As a result, the treatment effects (the ROPES program over the control program—a traditional cross‐cultural orientation program) would be more positive for high‐PSSE sojourners than for low‐PSSE sojourners. Seventy‐two incoming graduate students from East Asia entering a large US public university were randomly assigned to either a ROPES program or a control program, and were assessed pre‐entry and multiple times post‐entry. The results strongly supported our predictions, as the hypothesized PSSE × Treatment interactions were observed on a comprehensive set of training outcomes based on multisource data. Theoretical and practical implications were discussed. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The effects of transition stress: a relocation study

Survey participants (N=175) were drawn from six branches of a major British supermarket chain. Employees from three branches, who had been selected for transfer to new stores, were surveyed before and after relocation to examine the impact of this transition on individual well‐being. A comparison sample of employees, drawn from similar stores but not involved in relocation, was also surveyed. Cross‐sectional multiple regression analyses found that psychological distress was related to both work demands and personal characteristics (gender, neuroticism, locus of control, and social desirability response). Furthermore, path analysis revealed that after controlling for prior symptom levels, distress during the relocation period was predicted independently by the relocation and by work demands. Although in the present study it was not possible to account for differences in outcomes between new and comparison store employees in terms of changes in measured work characteristics, the negative impact of relocation was found to be buffered by perceptions of control and social support. Additionally, the impact of high work demands was buffered by Type B personal characteristics. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Me and us: differential relationships among goal‐setting training,efficacy and effectiveness at the individual and team level

Efficacy‐effectiveness relationships were examined for individual nurses and nursing teams who were either trained or untrained in goal‐setting. At the individual level, positive direct relationships were demonstrated between self‐efficacy and effectiveness, between training and subsequent self‐efficacy, and between training and effectiveness. Initial self‐efficacy also moderated the training‐effectiveness relationship. Nurses low in initial self‐efficacy realized greater effectiveness gains from the training than did nurses high in initial self‐efficacy. At the team level, group efficacy was related to effectiveness, and training was related to subsequent group efficacy, but training was not related to effectiveness, and there were no moderation effects for initial group efficacy. Collective cognition and behavioral plasticity are potential explanations for different effects at the individual and team level and avenues for theory development and future research. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Leader self‐awareness: An examination and implications of women's under‐prediction

Self‐awareness represents an important aspect of leadership. However, past research on leader self‐awareness has focused on one component of self‐awareness, self versus others' ratings, leaving the second component, the ability to anticipate the views of others, largely neglected. We examined this second component of self‐awareness by focusing on women leaders who have been found to under‐predict how others rate them. In two studies, we measured how women leaders anticipate the views of their bosses in regard to their leadership. In Study 1, 194 leaders rated their leadership, were rated by their bosses, and then predicted how their bosses rated their leadership. While we found that women under‐predict their boss ratings compared with men, we did not find that boss gender or feedback played a role in this under‐prediction. In Study 2, 76 female leaders identified (via open‐ended questions) possible reasons and consequences of under‐prediction for women in organizations. Results from Study 2 reveal the following: (1) the reasons for women's under‐prediction include a lack of self‐confidence, differences in feedback needs, learned gender roles, and self‐sexism; and (2) the perceived consequences of under‐prediction are negative for both women and the organization. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Type of employment,work–family conflict and well‐being: a comparative study

The study examined the impact of work and family role characteristics on work–family conflict, and indicators of psychological well being among self‐employed and organizationally employed women and men. Results show that employment type and gender have independent main effects on several of the study variables. Self‐employed persons enjoy greater autonomy and schedule flexibility at work, and report higher levels of job involvement and job satisfaction than those employed in organizations. However, they also experience higher levels of work–family conflict, and lower family satisfaction than organizational employees. The findings suggest that there are trade‐offs between the costs and benefits of self‐employment, and that business ownership is not a panacea for balancing work and family role responsibilties. Directions for future research are discussed. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The indirect relations of workplace incivility with emotional exhaustion and supportive behaviors via self‐blame: The moderating roles of observed incivility and trait emotional control

Drawing from the social cognitive theory of self‐regulation, we develop a model linking experienced incivility to emotional exhaustion and supportive behaviors via self‐blame, with observed incivility experienced by coworkers as a first‐stage moderator and trait emotional control as a second‐stage moderator. We contend that employees will experience self‐blame if they perceive themselves to be distinct targets of incivility (i.e., observed incivility experienced by others is low). Self‐blame can potentially trigger prosocial responses for improving the situation, but self‐blaming targets rarely respond in a prosocial manner because rational attempts to do so are thwarted by deleterious negative emotions accompanying self‐blame. We argue that trait emotional control provides resources for managing these negative emotions to unleash a bright side of self‐blame, such that the relation of self‐blame with prosocial responses (i.e., being supportive to coworkers) will be more positive and the relation of self‐blame with emotional exhaustion will be less positive for individuals with high (vs. low) trait emotional control. Multiwave data collected from a sample of 220 police officers largely support our hypotheses, indicating that the indirect relation of experienced incivility with supportive behaviors via self‐blame is strongest at lower levels of observed incivility and higher levels of emotional control.     

Self‐leadership in the context of part‐time teleworking

Employees who work periodically in both a traditional office and home office (part‐time teleworkers) face opportunities and risks related to both working locations. As self‐leadership might play a crucial role in this context, we examined within‐person variations in self‐leadership (self‐reward, self‐punishment, self‐cueing, self‐goal setting, imagining successful performance, and evaluation of beliefs and assumptions) on home days and office days. In a typical workweek, 195 part‐time teleworkers filled out daily surveys (729 days), and we examined the relationship between working location (office and home) and self‐leading behavior as well as the mediating role of autonomy. Finally, we investigated whether self‐leading behavior relates to ego depletion and work satisfaction at the end of the working day. Multilevel analyses revealed that part‐time teleworkers reported higher use of self‐reward, self‐goal setting, and visualization of successful performance on home days than on office days. The association between working location and self‐reward, self‐goal setting, visualization of successful performance, and evaluation of beliefs and assumptions was mediated by autonomy. There were no indirect effects of working location on ego depletion through self‐leadership. However, we found that on home days, part‐time teleworkers were more satisfied with their job at the end of the workday through self‐goal setting.     

Mental health outcomes of job stress among Chinese teachers: role of stress resource factors and burnout

This study examined the mental health outcomes of job stress among Chinese teachers in Hong Kong. A total of 269 Chinese teachers participated in Study 1 which provided cross‐sectional data regarding the associations among stress resource factors, burnout, and negative mental health. Study 2 was a six‐month longitudinal study which aimed to establish the direction of the associations among the hypothesized variables across two time points with a separate sample of 61 Chinese secondary school teachers. Results of the structural equation modelling analyses on the cross‐sectional data at T1 showed that stress resource factors of self‐efficacy and proactive attitude were negatively related to burnout, which in turn had a direct effect on negative mental health. Stress resource factors were also directly linked to mental health status of teachers. Results of similar analyses on the longitudinal data at T2 further indicated that burnout at T1 had a direct impact on burnout at T2, which in turn had a direct effect on negative mental health at T2. Findings and limitations of the study were discussed. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Customer‐related social stressors and service providers' affective reactions

Previous research has shown that customer‐related social stressors (CSS) have negative effects on service providers' long‐term well‐being. Little is known, however, about short‐term and mid‐term affective stress reactions and reciprocal effects between service providers' affect and CSS. The aim of this study was to expand extant research (i) by analyzing service providers' short‐term (across a day) and mid‐term (across 2 weeks) affective reactions to perceived CSS; (ii) by analyzing intraindividual as well as interindividual effects; and (iii) by investigating reciprocal effects of affective reactions and CSS that may eventually lead to psychosocial cycles. Our study employed a diary design with three measurement occasions per day over five consecutive days and a two‐week panel design using a sample of employees from public service organizations (N = 106). Results showed that CSS elicit changes in service providers' short‐term and mid‐term negative affects. We also found support for reversed effects of service providers' affective reactions on experienced CSS indicating psychosocial cycles between customers and service providers. To prevent escalation, we discuss potential resources. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Identifying the antecedents of coping with an organizational acquisition: a structural assessment

This study used Lazarus and Folkman's ( 1984 ) cognitive–phenomenological model of coping and Lazarus's ( 1991 ) theory of emotions to develop and test a model of how individuals cope with an organizational acquisition. The model identifies the origins and process used to select both problem‐focused and emotion‐focused coping strategies. Covariance structure analysis of data from 172 individuals indicated that problem‐focused coping was directly influenced by primary appraisal and negative emotion, while only certain types of emotion‐focused coping were directly related to negative emotion. All coping strategies were impacted by social support. Furthermore, negative emotion was predicted by primary appraisal, which in turn was related to perceived control, coping efficacy, and environmental conditions. Recommendations for future research and applications are discussed. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The role of self‐regulation in the relationship between abusive supervision and job tension

Trait and state self‐regulation both have critical influences on workplace behavior, but their influences are thought to operate quite differently. We draw from social exchange and ego depletion theories to investigate the relationship between trait and state self‐regulation, as well as how they differentially affect the relationship between subordinates' perceptions of abusive supervision and job tension. Specifically, we examine (a) how the interaction between abusive supervision and trait self‐regulation affects job tension and (b) how state self‐regulation mediates the relationship between abusive supervision and job tension. Using 3 studies that include an experiment (n = 81) and 2 field studies with cross‐sectional (n = 157) and time‐separated (n = 109) data, we demonstrate that the interaction between abusive supervision and trait self‐regulation increases experienced job tension for subordinates who report higher levels of abusive supervision and trait self‐regulation than others. Also, we provide evidence that abusive supervision is indirectly associated with job tension through state self‐regulation. This study's findings have important implications for abusive supervision and self‐regulation research, as well as social exchange and ego depletion theories, because we extend our understanding of how trait and state self‐regulation affect cognitive responses associated with abusive supervision.     

The development of self‐efficacy during aviation training

Given that self‐efficacy has been shown to be positively related to training outcomes, a better understanding of factors that affect self‐efficacy in complex training contexts is needed. This study examined the development of self‐efficacy in a flight‐training programme. Results indicate that training performance and self‐esteem predicted self‐efficacy for post‐training flight performance. Furthermore, prior flight experience moderated the relationships between training performance and self‐efficacy, and between self‐esteem and self‐efficacy. Implications regarding the development of self‐efficacy and the design of training programmes are discussed. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.