细水雾扑灭油池火过程中火焰强化现象的实验研究

在细水雾扑灭油池火的初期,某些油池火焰会有一个突然强化、剧烈燃烧的情况发生。通过实验研究证明,酒精等与水互溶的液体不会发生强化现象,汽油和柴油等不溶于水的液体则有明显的强化现象;同时,发生强化现象的根本原因是共沸使得细水雾到达燃料表面后急剧沸腾而强化燃烧。     

Evaluation of CFD simulations of transient pool fire burning rates

Fire is the most commonly occurring major accident hazard in the chemical and process industries, with industry accident statistics highlighting the liquid pool fire as the most frequent fire event. Modelling of such phenomena feeds heavily into industry risk assessment and consequence analyses. Traditional simple empirical equations cannot account for the full range of factors influencing pool fire behaviour or increasingly complex plant design. The use of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) modelling enables a greater understanding of pool fire behaviour to be gained numerically and provides the capability to deal with complex scenarios.This paper presents an evaluation of the Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS) for predictive modelling of liquid pool fire burning rates. Specifically, the work examines the ability of the model to predict temporal variations in the burning rate of open atmosphere pool fires. Fires ranging from 0.4 to 4 m in diameter, involving ethanol and a range of liquid hydrocarbons as fuels, are considered and comparisons of predicted fuel mass loss rates are compared to experimental measurements.The results show that the liquid pyrolysis sub-model in FDS gives consistent model performance for fully predictive modelling of liquid pool fire burning rates, particularly during quasi-steady burning. However, the model falls short of predicting the subtleties associated with each phase of the transient burning process, failing to reliably predict fuel mass loss rates during fire growth and extinction. The results suggest a range of model modifications which could lead to improved prediction of the transient fire growth and extinction phases of burning for liquid pool fires, specifically, investigation of: ignition modelling techniques for high boiling temperature liquid fuels; a combustion regime combining both infinite and finite-rate chemistry; a solution method which accounts for two- or three-dimensional heat conduction effects in the liquid-phase; alternative surrogate fuel compositions for multi-component hydrocarbon fuels; and modification of the solution procedure used at the liquid-gas interface during fire extinction.     

不同通风条件下柴油池火的实验研究

为了分析不同通风条件对柴油池火燃烧特性及引燃特性的影响,进行205 mm带水垫层柴油池火的引燃实验,通过对池火燃料的质量损失速率、火焰高度、温度及热辐射等的监测,分析通风环境中柴油池火的热传递规律。结果表明:当风速为0.5 m/s时,火灾进入旺盛阶段的时间提前,火焰平均温度最高;当风速为1 m/s时,风速的增加导致油池火的质量损失速率增加,位于主火源下风向的待引燃火源获得的热辐射通量增大,火灾旺盛阶段火焰的平均温度降低,火焰高度降低,下风向相邻油盘引燃的时间提前;1 m/s情况下,205 mm带水垫层柴油池火的安全间距需增加到1D以上;通风环境对池火发展及蔓延的影响是显著的,应适当加大下风向可燃物的安全间距,合理选择通风排烟风速,优化火灾应急救援策略。     

高原乙醇油池火燃烧特性实验研究*

为研究低压条件下油品燃烧特性,以乙醇油池火为研究对象,搭建高原油池火实验平台,研究不同油盘直径下乙醇油池火燃烧规律,分析燃烧速率、火焰高度和火焰脉动等参数随时间的变化规律。研究结果表明:低压条件下的乙醇油池火,燃烧速率小于同等尺度常压条件下的油池火燃烧速率;乙醇油池火的燃烧速率随油盘直径增加变化不明显;火焰高度随油池直径增加呈现显著上升趋势,并拟合推导出适用于低压乙醇池火的火焰高度公式;火焰脉动频率随油池直径增大而减小,并给出火焰脉动与油池直径的经验公式。研究结果可丰富低压乙醇燃烧的油池火实验数据,为低压乙醇油池火的风险评估提供参考。     

庚烷池火多火源燃烧特性的实验研究

多火源燃烧是森林火灾和城市群发性火灾中重要而又特殊的火灾现象,相关研究很少。通过恒定控制液面高度的实验系统,对直径0.1m、0.2m和0.4m的庚烷池火在单个火源、两火源燃烧和三火源线性排列时的火焰高度、火焰体积和燃烧速率等特性进行了实验研究。研究发现,三火源燃烧时中间火源的火焰高度、火焰体积和燃烧速率明显高于两火源燃烧和单火源燃烧,三火源燃烧时边上火源与两火源的燃烧状况难以区分。这些燃烧特性随着火源间距的减小,呈现增大趋势。热量反馈增强和空气卷吸受限这两种火源相互作用机制相互耦合,且随着火源间距的减小而增强,在S/D（S为火源间距,D为油池直径）为2～4时,两种机制强烈竞争,在其他参数范围内热量反馈增强效应占主导作用。研究还发现火焰体积与热释放速率有较好的线性相关关系,单位火焰体积的热释放速率约为1614kW/m3。     

Configuration predictions of large liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) pool fires using CFD method

Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) has potential pool fire risks due to its flammability. The configuration of pool fires plays a significant role when applying the solid flame model or point source model to assess the risks from heat radiation. However, no existing correlations can precisely predict the configuration of large LPG (100% propane) pool fires. To enhance the fundamental understanding on how pool diameter and wind velocity can influence the configuration of large LPG pool fires, an experimentally validated Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) model is employed to simulate fires using different burning rate models. Fire temperature profiles, flame heights, and flame tilts predicted by the CFD model were compared with empirical models and experimental data. Accordingly, new correlations for flame height and flame tilt as functions of pool diameter D and wind velocity u_w have been developed. The comparisons demonstrate that the new correlations have the best overall accuracy in the prediction of flame height and tilt for large LPG pool fires under different conditions (10 m ≤ D ≤ 20 m, 0 ≤ u_w ≤ 3 m·s⁻¹).     

An experimental study on the burning rate of a continuously released n-heptane spill fire on an open water surface

Spill fires are common during oil product storage and transportation after a loss of containment. Since the burning fuel is moving and the fuel depth is quite shallow, the burning rate in a spill fire is different from that of a pool fire with a static burning zone. Unlike pool fires, which have been studied for decades and have well-established correlations for burning rate, research on spill fires is inadequate. In this paper, continuously released n-heptane spill fire experiments were conducted on open water surfaces with varying fuel discharge rates. The pool diameters were measured, and the spill fire burning rates were estimated based on a dynamic balance between fuel supply and combustion. The burning rates in n-heptane pool fires from the literature were reviewed and compared with the estimated burning rates in spill fires of the same dimension. The spill fire burning rate was found to be close to that in a pool fire during the initial burning phase but lower than that in a bulk burning pool fire and that in a “fuel-level-controlled” pool fire. The distinction between the burning rates of spill fires and pool fires is explained by the heat balance analysis of the fuel layer. A model for the spill fire burning rate was proposed accordingly. The results calculated with the presented model are closer to the measured data than those calculated with pool fire models.     

低压条件下燃油开闭口闪点变化规律的实验研究

闪点是可燃液体的重要物性,同时也是衡量其火灾危险性的重要参数之一。随着航空火灾领域以及燃油运输使用的安全问题日益突出,研究可燃液体闪点与环境压力的关系尤为重要。利用全自动开、闭口闪点仪,通过低压舱模拟不同的环境大气压力,分别依据国家标准261-2008A(闭口杯法)和3536-2008(开口杯法)在大气压力33kPa~101kPa范围内进行了闪点测量,研究不同环境压力下,航空煤油和柴油开、闭口闪点的变化规律关系。实验结果表明,两种燃油开、闭口闪点均随环境压力降低(即海拔高度的升高)而下降,并且非线性拟合优于线性拟合。压力降低导致燃油火灾危险性显著提高。研究结果可为飞机油箱安全设计以及油品在高原环境中生产运输的防火管理提供科学依据。     

多因素下小尺度油罐火火焰倾角的研究

以柴油为研究对象,搭建了小尺度油罐火实验台,采用理论分析与实验研究相结合的方法,开展了有风条件下不同液位深度和罐顶开口宽度的小尺度油罐火火焰倾角的实验研究。结果表明,火焰倾角随风速的增加先迅速增加,然后趋于平稳。在相同的罐顶开口宽度和风速条件下,火焰倾角随着液位深度的增加呈现出减小的趋势。这是因为火焰微元在油罐开口处的速度随着液位深度的增加而增加,风速对火焰倾角的影响显著减小。当风速和液位深度一定时,质量损失速率随罐顶开口宽度的增大而增大,火焰倾角随着罐顶开口宽度的增大逐渐减小。     

隧道混合燃料火灾燃烧蔓延特性实验研究

隧道火灾一直是火灾科学研究领域的重要问题之一。近年来,隧道火灾中由于燃油泄漏而引起的火蔓延现象是一个新兴的研究热点。利用小尺寸(1:10)的隧道火灾模拟实验平台,开展了薄油、窄油池机制下不同混合比例下正丁醇-柴油燃烧特性实验研究。结果表明,根据正丁醇比例,可将正丁醇-柴油混合燃料分为两类。当正丁醇比例不大于20%时,主火焰蔓延速度线性增大,闪燃火焰则由间断变为持续存在且波长由14.17 cm减小到8.42 cm;油面温升速率逐渐增大;当正丁醇比例大于20%时,主火焰蔓延速度接近正丁醇蔓延速度(3.33 cm/s),闪燃火焰持续存在且波长在8.3 cm左右;油面温升速率基本相同。研究结果为认识隧道混合燃料火灾燃烧特性提供了参考。     

浸油沙层火焰传播速度研究

使用0#柴油和沙层作为燃料和地面模型,通过实验研究了泄漏液体燃料渗透在地面之后的火焰传播现象.详细研究了燃料床中沙粒直径、燃烧盘宽度及一端施加辐射热对火焰传播速度的影响,并使用热电偶测量了沙层表面火焰前沿到达时的温度以及沙层表面能够达到的最高温度.结果表明,燃料渗漏在地面的火焰传播速度明显低于液池火灾的火焰传播速度,且改变沙油质量比、燃烧盘的宽度及外界热辐射直接影响火焰传播速度.     

池火灾热辐射的数值研究

通过列举储罐火灾事故,提出对池火灾进行研究的重要性。介绍目前池火灾国内外的研究现状及发展情况,描述池火灾燃烧特征和模型。应用化学流体力学基本定律,建立了描述池火灾过程的基本控制方程组,并根据适当的条件选择辐射模型。建立物理模型,做出合理假设,确定初始和边界条件,对池火灾热辐射过程进行数值模拟,得出火焰周围入射热流密度分布图,计算出相邻两罐之间的最小安全距离,应用于工程实际中,给防火间距的制定提供理论依据,计算结果定性合理。     

油池边沿高度对池火燃烧特性影响的实验研究

研究了油池边沿高度(h)对池火燃烧特性的影响,开展了内径(d)为10 cm的不同h和不同油盘材料(石英、不锈钢、铝和铜)的正庚烷池火实验。结果表明,正庚烷池火的燃烧速率、火焰高度和脉动频率均随着边沿高度的增大而减小,且随着油盘材料的热导率增大,边沿高度的影响逐渐减弱。基于量纲分析分别修正了火焰高度和脉动频率模型,结果能够较好地符合实验值。     

An experimental study of an LPG tank at low filling level heated by a remote wall fire

This paper describes an experimental study of 2300 L pressure vessels exposed to remote fire heating by a natural gas fuelled wall fire simulator. The tanks were filled to 15% capacity with commercial liquid propane. The flame intensity and distance were varied to study the effect of different heating levels on the tank and its lading.The fire simulator is first characterized with tests including fire thermocouples, radiative flux meters and thermal imaging. With the appropriate positioning of a target tank it is possible to get very realistic fire heat fluxes at the tank surface.Three tests were conducted with the 2300 L tanks filled to 15% capacity with propane. The tanks were positioned at three different distances from the wall fire resulting in measured average peak heat flux at the tank surfaces ranging between 24 and 43 kW m^?2. The data shows rapid rise in vapour space wall temperatures, significant temperature stratification in the vapour space, and moderate rate of pressure rise. These results provide excellent data for the validation of computer models used to predict the response of pressure vessels exposed to moderate heating from a remote fire.     

Impact of wind on in-situ burning behavior of spilled oil on open water

Spilled oil may cause serious environmental pollution and ecological destruction. Thus, an efficient oil spill response is essential to reduce and minimize the impacts seen from an oil spill. In-situ burning (ISB) has been proven to be one of the most convenient and efficient treatment methods for oil spills on sea. When in-situ burning operation is carried out on sea, the wind is usually available. Spilled oil pool fire flame will be blown to tilt with an angle from the vertical direction and the flame length will be stretched. This effect of flame on downstream will be significantly enhanced. It may even cause the burning of spilled oil out of control or hazard the operators near site. Therefore, it is meaningful to study the burning behavior of oil pool fire on open water under wind.A small-scale oil pool fire on open water experiment system was designed, which could simulate the boundary conditions of sea surface ISB. A series of experiments were carried out to study the effects of oil pool diameter, oil layer thickness and wind speed on fire flame length and flame tilt angle. Flame characteristics and temperature of burning system were recorded. This study observes burning behavior to evolve from short pool fire to long declining phase which transient through boilover stage. Dimensionless flame length in pool fire stage increases with wind speed. As expected the flame tilt is strongly influenced by wind speed, tilt angle increase with wind speed. The observed experimental behavior is captured as improvement in the flame length and flame tilt angle models.This study helped better understanding fire behavior in evolving environmental conditions, and the most importantly developed model would help guide better assessment of fire mitigation strategies.     

Study on accidental fire at a large-scale floating-roof gasoline storage tank

For an accident involving a large-scale internal floating-roof tank with 28.4 m diameter and filled with 4600 m³ gasoline, the actual behavior of the gasoline fire and the fire-fighting strategies that were applied to it were analyzed in terms of the heat release rate, burning rate, and regression rate. During the accident, the initial fire suppression strategy failed and the gasoline was moved to an external tank. A total of 2800 m³ gasoline was burned for 17 h with a resulting heat release rate of 1475 MW. The long duration of the fire burning was attributed to the burning surface of the gasoline, which was not covered with foam at the beginning of the fire using the active foam fire-extinguishing system due to damage to one of the foam chambers. The average regression rate of the gasoline was 0.16 m/h after 8 h of burning and 0.35 m/h when the fire was completely suppressed.     

室内火灾中外部燃烧现象的数值模拟

外部燃烧是室内火灾中火焰随烟气流出窗户并在窗户外燃烧的现象。外部燃烧会造成火势从初始着火的房间向其他房间或楼层蔓延，具有很大的危害性。本文应用美国国家标准技术局（NIST）开发的FDS程序，对外部燃烧现象进行了研究。首先对Bullen和Thomas的实验进行数值模拟，用以验证FDS对外部燃烧现象的模拟效果。在相近的燃料过量因子的条件下，计算得到的外部燃烧羽流的温度分布结果、外部燃烧火焰的高度和火焰距离窗户所在壁面的水平距离与Bullen和Thomas的实验结果符合得较好。之后，研究了不同窗户大小和不同燃料消耗率对外部燃烧的影响。最后，发现当燃料消耗率足够大致使室内燃料过量因子接近1时，室内火焰将会熄灭，燃料流出窗户形成的外部燃烧火焰会被拉长，火焰肾贴窗户外的壁面向上燃烧。     

An experimental and modeling study of continuous liquid fuel spill fires on water

The spread of burning fuel spilled from oil product containers during offshore storage and transportation may cause large damage and trigger further accidents. Some analytical models already exist to predict the spread and burning behavior of liquid fuel spill fires, however, few experimental studies have been conducted to verify the model results. In this paper, continuous n-heptane spill fire experiments were conducted in a rectangular trench covered with water. The burning area, fuel spread rate, and thermal flux with different discharge flow rates and ignition delay times were investigated by both experimental and modeling means. The spill fire burning area, with 5 typical phases during burning, has a quasi-steady value which is directly proportional to the discharge rate but irrelevant to the ignition delay times. The steady burning rate, as the ratio of discharge rate over burning area, was estimated. A spread model was modified to simulate the spread of continuous liquid fuel spill fires in a one-dimensional channel, based on the balance between gravity and viscous forces. A cuboid solid flame model was used to compute the thermal flux from spill fires. The burning fuel spread and the heat flux calculated by the models agree with the experimental results.     

比较FDS和FLUENT在池火灾模拟中的应用

热辐射是池火灾燃烧的主要危害之一,可能导致人员伤亡或设备设施损坏。油罐火灾是典型的池火灾。本文通过对无风情况下油罐火灾火焰形状进行理论模型分析,建立了各自的物理模型和几何模型。应用计算流体动力学软件Fluent和火灾动力学模拟软件FDS,对无风情况下池火灾对周围大气环境的热辐射强度进行模拟,得到了火焰周围入射热流密度分布图,运用软件Statistica拟合得出热辐射强度与距离火焰中心的水平距离的对应关系,分别计算出轻伤半径区域下的最小安全距离。数值模型模拟结果与池火灾经验模型进行比较,发现FDS辐射强度结果与经验模型结果吻合较好。分析了利用这两种模型模拟油罐火灾各自的优点和缺点,最后提出了运用FDS软件模型模拟油罐火灾时的优势。     

受限空间脉冲细水雾灭火数值模拟

为研究脉冲细水雾灭火效果和灭火机理,采用FDS软件对连续和脉冲细水雾熄灭受限空间油盘火进行了数值模拟。通过模拟和理论分析确定了脉冲细水雾周期为8 s开启、8 s暂停,并设置了冷却和窒息两种灭火条件,对两种细水雾熄灭不同尺寸的柴油池火进行了研究。结果表明:连续细水雾无法熄灭直径15 cm和20 cm的小尺寸油盘火,对直径25 cm中尺寸油盘火的灭火机理为冷却,对直径为30cm和35 cm大尺寸油盘火的灭火机理为窒息;脉冲细水雾能够熄灭不同尺寸的油盘火,且灭火效率高,火焰熄灭均发生在喷头暂停喷水期间,灭火机理为水雾蒸发稀释氧气而窒息。