三江源区不同建植年限人工草地土壤微生物群落结构特征

近年来,对退化生态系统恢复的研究逐渐由地上向地下部分转移,地下部分特别是土壤微生物群落对土壤的恢复机理和过程已倍受关注.运用常规实验室分析法和磷脂脂肪酸法,研究三江源区不同建植年限人工草地土壤养分和微生物群落结构及其分布特征.结果显示:土壤总磷脂脂肪酸(总PLFAs)、真菌PLFAs(F PLFAs)、细菌PLFAs(B PLFAs)、革兰氏阳性菌PLFAs(G+PLFAs)、革兰氏阴性菌PLFAs(G-PLFAs)含量与PLFA类型随建植年限的增加呈先降低后升高的变化趋势,随土层深度的增加而降低.土壤全量、速效养分含量均随建植年限的增加呈现同样的变化规律.主成分分析表明,在0-10 cm、10-20 cm土层中,4年和16年人工草地土壤微生物群落PLFA类型丰富多样,群落结构更加复杂稳定,而7年和9年的土壤微生物群落结构较为单一.相关分析表明,总PLFAs、B PLFAs、F PLFA s、G+PLFAs和G-PLFAs含量与土壤全量和速效养分含量(除速效氮、速效磷)均呈极显著或显著正相关(P<0.01;P<0.05).综上,在合理放牧条件下,人工草地的建植有利于土壤微生物生物量的提高和群落结构的改变.利用微生物PLFA含量和类型的多样性作为监测土壤环境的指标,能及时有效地判别土壤养分的变化情况,有利于及时管理人工草地.     

氮沉降增加对贝加尔针茅草原土壤微生物群落结构的影响

土壤微生物是草原土壤生态系统的重要组成部分。为研究氮沉降增加对草原土壤微生物群落结构的影响,以内蒙古贝加尔针茅草原为研究对象,开展连续6年(2010—2015年)模拟氮沉降试验,以N计算,设置:N0(0 kg·hm~(-2))、N50(50kg·hm~(-2))、N100(100 kg·hm~(-2))、N150(150 kg·hm~(-2))和N300(300 kg·hm~(-2))5个处理,采用磷脂脂肪酸(PLFA)技术测定0~10 cm土壤特征微生物PLFA生物标记数量并探讨土壤微生物群落结构对氮沉降的响应。结果表明:随氮添加量增大,土壤微生物总PLFAs、细菌PLFAs、革兰氏阳性细菌PLFAs、革兰氏阴性细菌PLFAs和放线菌PLFAs含量呈先升高后降低的趋势,均以N100(100 kg·hm~(-2))处理最高。土壤微生物群落PLFA标记的主成分分析显示,不同氮添加下土壤微生物PLFA标记有显著差异。相关分析表明,土壤革兰氏阳性菌、放线菌PLFA含量、G~+/G~-与土壤p H值呈显著负相关,土壤微生物总PLFAs、土壤细菌PLFAs、革兰氏阳性菌PLFAs、革兰氏阴性菌PLFAs、放线菌PLFAs和饱和脂肪酸PLFAs含量均与土壤速效磷含量呈显著正相关。综合研究表明,连续6年氮添加改变了贝加尔针茅草原土壤微生物群落结构,土壤p H值和土壤速效磷含量是驱动这种变化的主要因素。     

洛克沙胂暴露胁迫对土壤微生物群落结构特征的影响

采用磷脂脂肪酸(phospholipid fatty acid,PLFA)方法,分析了洛克沙胂残留对土壤微生物群落结构的影响特征。结果表明,在整个采样周期中,每克土壤总PLFA含量在洛克沙胂胁迫影响下出现明显降低,且存在一定的剂量依赖效应。经主成分分析,第1周,洛克沙胂低浓度组(w=15 mg·kg-1)土壤微生物群落结构和对照组差异不明显,第2、3、5、8周,各组土壤微生物群落结构多样性的类型差异显著,其中高浓度组(w=150 mg·kg-1)与对照组差异最大。结果表明,洛克沙胂可致土壤微生物群落结构多样性改变,暴露浓度越高其作用越强。同时,洛克沙胂对土壤微生物群落结构多样性的影响还表现出时间差异,在暴露胁迫的后期(第5、8周),洛克沙胂的影响逐步减弱,可能与洛克沙胂在土壤中发生化学结构改变和降解有关。     

扎龙湿地土壤微生物群落结构的季节变化特征

运用磷脂脂肪酸(PLFA)法研究扎龙湿地各季节土壤微生物群落结构和多样性.结果表明:不同季节土壤中共检测到29(春)、30(夏)、29(秋)和27(冬)种PLFA,其中含量最高的PLFA分别为16:0(16.49%)、18:1ω9c(17.41%)、18:1ω9c(20.48%)和18:2ω6,9(26.16%).季节变化对一般性细菌、G~+菌、G~-菌、真菌、放线菌和总PLFAs有显著影响(P0.05),除真菌外均表现为春季最高、冬季最低,而真菌则为冬季最高、春季最低.香农-威纳多样性指数和Mc Intosh指数在春季最高,Simpson指数则在冬季最高.主成分分析(PCA)表明,第1主成分和第2主成分共解释土壤微生物群落结构总变异的87.6%,不同季节间土壤微生物群落结构存在显著差异.冗余分析(RDA)表明,放线菌和G~+菌与土壤有机质、总氮、速效氮和速效钾呈显著正相关,G~-菌与速效磷呈显著正相关,真菌和一般性细菌与土壤pH呈显著正相关.扎龙湿地微生物群落结构的季节波动与土壤养分状况密切相关,研究结果可为扎龙湿地生态功能恢复提供科学依据.     

平顶山、长白山、赛罕乌拉森林土壤微生物群落结构分析

土壤微生物是整个生态系统养分和能源循环的关键和动力。土壤的生物多样性比陆地上其他任何生态系统都要丰富,这种丰富的生物多样性导致了对其群落结构和生态功能难以预测。在一系列基于分子微生物学、生物地球化学和生理学的土壤微生物群落结构研究方法中,磷脂脂肪酸技术(PLFA)以磷脂作为分析成分,因其组成和含量在同一种微生物中通常相对稳定、可遗传,且具有仅在活体微生物中存在的特性,所以,PLFA技术可指示特定生物或生物种群的存在和状况,现已被广泛运用于土壤微生物群落结构分析中,监测微生物群落的动态变化。本研究选取了中国东北地区海拔高度达1000 m以上的典型森林生态系统:小兴安岭平顶山、吉林长白山、内蒙赛罕乌拉森林土壤为研究对象,采用PLFA方法,分析了土壤中微生物的生物量和细菌Bacteria、真菌Fungus、革兰氏阳性菌Gram+Bacteria和革兰氏阴性菌Gram-Bacteria 4种微生物群落结构。在此基础上使用相关分析、主成分分析等统计方法,揭示了土壤微生物群落结构与海拔高度、森林类型及其土壤理化因子的相互关系,为开展森林生态系统生物多样性与元素循环和气候变化的相关研究提供基础资料。研究得出以下结论:(1)对我国平顶山、长白山和赛罕乌拉背景森林中不同植被类型12个土壤样品的现场测定与采样分析,结果表明,土壤总有机碳(TOC)范围为3.15%~16.3%,pH值范围为3.5~4.8,碳氮比(C/N)为12.1~18.4,土壤含水率范围为13.3%~74.5%,采样时土壤温度为8.0~18.8°C。(2)样品的PLFAs总含量代表了土壤微生物总生物量,范围为27.39~237.63μg·g-1。赛罕乌拉土壤中微生物的生物量(PLFAs总量)最高;而平顶山土壤中的细菌含量、真菌含量和革兰氏阳性菌显著高于其余两座山。革兰氏阳性菌与阴性菌的比值在平顶山土壤中最大(4.19),明显高于长白山(3.14)和赛罕乌拉(2.39);而真菌与细菌比值却与之相反(平顶山0.55、长白山0.69、赛罕乌拉1.05)。(3)利用SPSS软件,对不同微生物群落与环境因子进行相关分析,结果表明:细菌的含量与纬度呈显著正相关,而和土壤C/N呈显著负相关(P0.01);真菌群落总体上与土壤C/N呈现负相关性(P0.05)。进一步对细菌群落和代表真菌群落的两个主要PLFAs成分(C18:1ω9、C18:2ω6,9)与土壤碳氮比做相关分析发现:C18:1与土壤碳氮比呈现显著负相关(P0.01),而C18:2ω6,9与土壤碳氮比的相关关系并不明显。因此,我们认为单一种类PLFA作为生物标记物随土壤碳氮比变化的灵敏度更高。(4)主成分分析表明:土壤微生物多样性主要受纬度所导致植被类型差异的影响(P0.01),且与土壤碳氮比呈负相关、土壤含水率呈正相关(P0.05)。     

冻融循环对亚高山森林土壤微生物生物量及群落结构的影响

土壤冻融循环过程释放的碳和养分是维持亚高山森林冬季土壤微生物活性的重要保障。为了解冻融循环对土壤微生物群落的影响,以川西亚高山针叶林、阔叶林和针阔混交林土壤为对象,采用微缩实验研究了冻融循环(-5℃冻结12 h,5℃解冻12 h为一个冻融循环,共80次)对土壤微生物群落磷脂脂肪酸(PLFAs)含量和结构的短期影响。结果表明:土壤微生物群落对冻融循环响应随林型不同而存在差异。与5次冻融循环相比,3种林型的细菌、真菌、革兰氏阳性菌(G~+)和革兰氏阴性菌(G~-)的PLFAs含量在经80次冻融循环后均出现降低,混交林、针叶林和阔叶林细菌PLFAs含量分别降低71.9%、73.7%和74.6%,真菌PLFAs含量降低55.5%、75.4%和84.7%,G~+PLFAs含量降低77.1%、68.8%和73.7%,G~-PLFAs含量降低70.6%、78.1%和78.8%。冻融循环显著影响阔叶林的真菌/细菌比值,林型对真菌/细菌比值和G~+/G~-影响不显著。Shannon-Wiener多样性指数和Pielou均匀度指数在混交林中随冻融循环次数增加而逐渐增加,在针叶林和阔叶林中则呈现降低趋势,且均受冻融循环显著影响。冗余分析(RDA)显示,冻融过程中土壤养分有效性与微生物生物量和群落结构显著相关。全球变暖导致冬季冻融循环格局变化可通过改变土壤养分有效性影响亚高山森林土壤微生物生物量和多样性。     

多氯联苯对我国土壤微生物的生态毒理效应

作为持久性有机污染物(POPs),多氯联苯(PCBs)一旦进入土壤将长期存留并对土栖生物产生潜在危害。土壤微生物是土壤生态系统重要组成部分,研究外源PCBs对土壤微生物的生态毒理效应,筛选出指示PCBs污染的敏感指标并获取可靠的生态毒理数据十分重要。研究以江西红壤和天津潮土为供试土壤,在室内25℃连续培养28 d的条件下进行了生态毒理实验,选择了微生物量碳、呼吸强度、代谢熵、硝化作用、脱氢酶活性、脲酶活性和微生物群落功能多样性为微生物指标。结果显示:1)在28 d培养时间内,多氯联苯(PCBs)的毒性作用随培养时间的延长而增强,且在红壤中的毒性作用强于在潮土中,表明PCBs对土壤微生物的毒性作用存在时间效应并受土壤性质的影响。2)各微生物指标的敏感性不同,微生物量碳、脲酶活性和微生物功能多样性对PCBs污染反应不够敏感,而土壤呼吸强度、代谢熵、硝化作用和脱氢酶活性对PCBs污染反应敏感。3)14 d时,红壤中PCBs对脱氢酶活性、呼吸强度和代谢熵的EC10值分别为1.20、3.18和1.09 mg·kg-1,而在潮土中分别为6.31、4.73和50 mg·kg-1;28 d时,红壤中PCBs对硝化作用、脱氢酶活性、呼吸强度和代谢熵的EC10值分别为2.32、0.77、0.51和0.71mg·kg-1,而在潮土中分别为5.91、1.65、3.00和50 mg·kg-1。综合考虑经济和实际需要等因素,建议将呼吸强度、硝化作用和脱氢酶活性作为PCBs污染土壤生态毒理评价中的首选敏感指标,并建议培养时间设置为28 d。     

施氮对不同有机碳水平桉树林土壤微生物群落结构和功能的影响

碳、氮是影响土壤微生物群落结构和功能的2种重要生源要素,但研究施氮对人工林土壤微生物群落影响时很少考虑土壤有机碳水平。本研究以我国南方桉树Eucalyptus人工林为对象,研究施氮水平(对照:0 kg·hm-2,常规施氮水平166.8kg·hm-2,施二倍氮素水平333.7 kg·hm-2)对不同有机碳水平桉树林土壤微生物群落结构(磷脂脂肪酸构成)和功能(土壤酶活性及可溶性土壤有机碳含量)的影响,结果表明:施氮显著降低土壤微生物群落磷脂脂肪酸总量以及细菌、真菌、放线菌磷脂脂肪酸量和真菌/细菌比值(P0.05);区分不同处理的土壤微生物磷脂脂肪酸主要是:真菌特征脂肪酸16:1ω5c、18:1ω9c、18:2ω9c及细菌特征脂肪酸16:1ω7c、i17:0和放线菌特征脂肪酸10Me18:0;施氮显著增加了土壤纤维素酶、酚氧化酶活性及土壤可溶性有机碳含量(P0.05);尽管高土壤有机碳水平样地的土壤微生物磷脂脂肪酸量、土壤酶活性以及可溶性有机碳含量显著高于低土壤有机碳水平样地,但低、高土壤有机碳水平样地的土壤微生物群落结构和功能对施氮的响应不一致,土壤细菌、真菌、放线菌磷脂脂肪酸量以及酚氧化酶活性和土壤可溶性有机碳含量在低土壤有机碳水平样地中对施氮的响应更敏感,而这些指标在高土壤有机碳水平样地中只有在施二倍氮素处理中才显著降低或不变化。该研究结果表明不同土壤有机碳水平中的土壤微生物群落对施氮的响应不一致,强调了在全面认识氮肥施用对土壤微生物群落的影响时,需要充分考虑土壤有机碳水平。     

长白山森林不同演替阶段土壤微生物群落结构

森林生态系统是陆地生态系统中最为重要的类型之一,土壤微生物是森林生态系统的主要调节者。随着森林演替的正向进行,地上植物类型和多样性的改变会造成土壤微生物群落结构组成的差别。为了深入探究长白山森林不同演替阶段的土壤生物学特性,为长白山地区森林资源的可持续发展提供理论数据,本研究选取长白山年龄为30年、70年、300年的森林样地,分析了长白山森林不同演替阶段土壤理化性质和微生物群落水平上的演变规律。结果表明,不同演替阶段土壤微生物群落结构存在差异,70年与30年和300年相比具有明显的变化,70年的土壤微生物总PLFAs含量以及多样性均显著高于300年,且土壤微生物群落结构受到土壤pH和土壤养分含量的显著影响。     

不同林龄陈山红心杉土壤微生物群落结构特征

以不同年龄(5年、10年、20年和40年)陈山红心杉林为研究对象,采用磷脂脂肪酸(PLFA)法分析其土壤微生物群落结构与多样性.结果发现,陈山红心杉林土壤总PLFAs及各类群微生物PLFAs含量随年龄增加先下降后上升,真菌/细菌(F/B)变化不明显,G~+/G~-和SAT/MONO呈下降趋势,Cy/Pre及微生物群落多样性指标总体呈先升后降的趋势.林龄改变了土壤微生物群落结构,第一、二主成分贡献率分别为72.2%和25.0%,主要由不同林龄土壤理化性质引起.速效养分影响大于全量养分.Cy/Pre只在10年林龄大于0.5,反映环境胁迫可能导致了微生物PLFAs含量从10年林龄到20年下降,但这并未改变土壤生态系统的稳定程度.综上,不同林龄陈山红心杉林土壤微生物群落结构可反映土壤环境状况及养分可利用性,对陈山红心杉的丰产、高效、优质经营具有重要意义.(图4表3参39)     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

Rapid,recurring, structured survey versus bioblitz for generating biodiversity data and analysis with a multispecies abundance model

A bioblitz inexpensively and quickly generates biodiversity data, but bioblitzes are often conducted with haphazard, unreplicated sampling. Results tend to be taxonomically, geographically, or temporally biased, lack metadata, and consist of lists of observed taxa that do not enable further analyses or correction for imperfect detection. A rapid, recurring, structured survey (RRSS) uses a structured sampling design and temporal and spatial replication to survey randomly selected sites on a conservation property. We participated in a loosely structured bioblitz and a subsequent RRSS at Big Canoe Creek Nature Preserve in Springville (St. Clair County), Alabama (USA) to compare observed richness derived from the 2 survey approaches. The RRSS data structure enabled us to fit models that accounted for imperfect detection to estimate abundances, occupancy probabilities, and habitat associations. The loosely structured bioblitz data could not be used in such models. We present a new integrated multispecies abundance model that we applied to avian RRSS data. Our model extension enables estimation for the community, employs data augmentation to estimate the number of undetected species, and incorporates covariates. The RRSS generated a more comprehensive and less biased list of observed taxonomic richness than the loosely structured bioblitz (e.g., 73 vs. 45 bird species and 104 vs. 63 insect families from the RRSS vs. loosely structured bioblitz, respectively). Models fit to the RRSS data identified seasonal patterns in avian community composition and allowed for estimation of habitat–occupancy relationships for insect taxa. The RRSS protocol has potential for broad transferability as a standardized, quick, and inexpensive way to inventory biodiversity and estimate ecological parameters while providing an outreach opportunity.     

Compliance with and ecosystem function of biodiversity offsets in North American and European freshwaters

Land-use change via human development is a major driver of biodiversity loss. To reduce these impacts, billions of dollars are spent on biodiversity offsets. However, studies evaluating offset project effectiveness that examine components such as the overall compliance and function of projects remain rare. We reviewed 577 offsetting projects in freshwater ecosystems that included the metrics project size, type of aquatic system (e.g., wetland and creek), offsetting measure (e.g., enhancement, restoration, and creation), and an assessment of the projects’ compliance and functional success. Project information was obtained from scientific and government databases and gray literature. Despite considerable investment in offsetting projects, crucial problems persisted. Although compliance and function were related to each other, a high level of compliance did not guarantee a high degree of function. However, large projects relative to area had better function than small projects. Function improved when projects targeted productivity or specific ecosystem features and when multiple complementary management targets were in place. Restorative measures were more likely to achieve targets than creating entirely new ecosystems. Altogether the relationships we found highlight specific ecological processes that may help improve offsetting outcomes.     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.     

A palaeo-hydrogeological model for arsenic contamination in southern and south-east Asia

An argument is presented in which areas of natural arsenic contamination of modern groundwaters throughout Asia have a common origin. Arsenic originally accumulated in oceanic ferro-manganoan sediments of the eastern Palaeo-Tethys. This was further concentrated through oceanic crustal extinction in what later became the south-east Chinese accreted mineralised terrain. Proto-Himalayan uplift of this area created the palaeo-drainage systems of the Ganges – Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy, Mekong, and Red Rivers, with consequent headwater erosion of arsenic-rich sediments. Their downstream deposition as immature and easily redistributed Neogene sandstones, silts, and iron-rich clays has created secondary and tertiary reservoirs of adsorbed and authigenic arsenic, from which the current arsenic-rich groundwaters have evolved. Considering river basins within the above palaeo-hydrogeological framework provides a basis for assessing the risk of arsenic in groundwater basins of south and south-eastern Asia.     

Sequestration of cucurbitacin analogs by New and Old World chrysomelid leaf beetles in the tribe Luperini

Summary Two South American polyphagous leaf beetles,Diabrotica speciosa andCerotoma arcuata, selectively accumulated the bitter tasting compound 23,24-dihydrocucurbitacin D in their body after ingesting root tissues of cucurbit plants. Similarly, three Asian Cucurbitaceae-feeding specialists in the genusAulacophora were found to sequester the same compound. Cucurbitacin analogs were shown to deter feeding by a bird predator, indicating an allomonal role for these compounds in cucurbitacin-associated chrysomelid leaf beetles both of New and Old Worlds. The strong affinity to cucurbitacins, selective sequestration of the analogs and consequent protection from predators suggested an ecological adaptation mechanism developed in common among these two geographically isolated subtribes in the Luperini.     

Effects of Controlled Fire and Livestock Grazing on Bird Communities in East African Savannas

Abstract: In East Africa fire and grazing by wild and domestic ungulates maintain savannas, and pastoralists historically set fires and herded livestock through the use of temporary corrals called bomas. In recent decades traditional pastoral practices have declined, and this may be affecting biodiversity. We investigated the effects of prescribed fires and bomas on savanna bird communities in East Africa during the first and second dry seasons of the year (respectively before and after the rains that mark the onset of breeding for most birds). We compared abundance, richness, and community composition on 9‐ha burned plots, recently abandoned bomas, and control plots in the undisturbed matrix habitat over a 3‐year period. Generally, recently burned areas and abandoned bomas attracted greater densities of birds and had different community assemblages than the surrounding matrix. The effects of disturbances were influenced by interactions between primary productivity, represented by the normalized difference vegetation index, and time. Bird densities were highest and a greater proportion of species was observed on burned plots in the months following the fires. Drought conditions equalized bird densities across treatments within 1 year, and individuals from a greater proportion of species were more commonly observed on abandoned bomas. Yearly fluctuations in abundance were less pronounced on bomas than on burns, which indicate that although fire may benefit birds in the short term, bomas may have a more‐lasting positive effect and provide resources during droughts. Several Palearctic migrants were attracted to burned plots regardless of rainfall, which indicates continued fire suppression may threaten their already‐declining populations. Most notably, the paucity of birds observed on the controls suggests that the current structure of the matrix developed as a result of fire suppression. Traditional pastoralism appears critical to the maintenance of avian diversity in these savannas.     

Cost‐effective conservation of an endangered frog under uncertainty

How should managers choose among conservation options when resources are scarce and there is uncertainty regarding the effectiveness of actions? Well‐developed tools exist for prioritizing areas for one‐time and binary actions (e.g., protect vs. not protect), but methods for prioritizing incremental or ongoing actions (such as habitat creation and maintenance) remain uncommon. We devised an approach that combines metapopulation viability and cost‐effectiveness analyses to select among alternative conservation actions while accounting for uncertainty. In our study, cost‐effectiveness is the ratio between the benefit of an action and its economic cost, where benefit is the change in metapopulation viability. We applied the approach to the case of the endangered growling grass frog (Litoria raniformis), which is threatened by urban development. We extended a Bayesian model to predict metapopulation viability under 9 urbanization and management scenarios and incorporated the full probability distribution of possible outcomes for each scenario into the cost‐effectiveness analysis. This allowed us to discern between cost‐effective alternatives that were robust to uncertainty and those with a relatively high risk of failure. We found a relatively high risk of extinction following urbanization if the only action was reservation of core habitat; habitat creation actions performed better than enhancement actions; and cost‐effectiveness ranking changed depending on the consideration of uncertainty. Our results suggest that creation and maintenance of wetlands dedicated to L. raniformis is the only cost‐effective action likely to result in a sufficiently low risk of extinction. To our knowledge we are the first study to use Bayesian metapopulation viability analysis to explicitly incorporate parametric and demographic uncertainty into a cost‐effective evaluation of conservation actions. The approach offers guidance to decision makers aiming to achieve cost‐effective conservation under uncertainty.     

Parasitic wasps orient to green leaf volatiles

Summary Undamaged plants emit low levels of green leaf volatiles (GLVs), while caterpillar-damaged and artificially damaged plants emit relatively higher levels of certain GLVs. Female braconid parasitoids,Microplitis croceipes, oriented to both damaged plants and to individual GLVs in no-choice tests in a wind tunnel, but seldom oriented to undamaged plants. Female ichneumonid parasitoids,Netelia heroica, also oriented to individual GLVs in a wind tunnel. Males of both wasp species failed to orient to the GLVs. These data show that leaf-feeding caterpillars can cause the release of GLVs, and that parasitic wasps can respond to these odors by flying upwind (chemoanemotactic response), which brings the wasps to their caterpillar hosts. This supports the hypothesis that plants communicate with members of the third trophic level,i.e., plants under herbivore attack emit chemical signals that guide natural enemies of herbivores to sites of plant damage. In this interaction, the GLVs serve as tritrophic plant-to-parasitoid synomones. That parasitoids from two different wasp families oriented to GLVs suggests that the response may be widespread among the Hymenoptera.Mention of a commercial or proprietary product does not constitute an endorsement by the U.S. Department of Agriculture     

What Every Conservation Biologist Should Know about Economic Theory

Abstract: The last century has seen the ascendance of a core economic model, which we will refer to as Walrasian economics. This model is driven by the psychological assumptions that humans act only in a self‐referential and narrowly rational way and that production can be described as a self‐contained circular flow between firms and households. These assumptions have critical implications for the way economics is used to inform conservation biology. Yet the Walrasian model is inconsistent with a large body of empirical evidence about actual human behavior, and it violates a number of basic physical laws. Research in behavioral science and neuroscience shows that humans are uniquely social animals and not self‐centered rational economic beings. Economic production is subject to physical laws including the laws of thermodynamics and mass balance. In addition, some contemporary economic theory, spurred by exciting new research in human behavior and a wealth of data about the negative global impact of the human economy on natural systems, is moving toward a world view that places consumption and production squarely in its behavioral and biophysical context. We argue that abandoning the straightjacket of the Walrasian core is essential to further progress in understanding the complex, coupled interactions between the human economy and the natural world. We call for a new framework for economic theory and policy that is consistent with observed human behavior, recognizes the complex and frequently irreversible interaction between human and natural systems, and directly confronts the cumulative negative effects of the human economy on the Earth's life support systems. Biophysical economics and ecological economics are two emerging economic frameworks in this movement.