Linkages between land management activities and stream water quality in a border dyke-irrigated pastoral catchment

This paper describes key linkages between land management activities and stream water quality for a 5230 ha catchment used for intensive pastoral agriculture in southern New Zealand. Due to low annual rainfall and the wide coverage of soils with low available water-holding capacities, flood irrigation of the 2400 ha of flat land within the catchment is an important feature impacting on farm business profitability and stream health. Water quality variables and nutrient and sediment yield estimates are reported for a four-year period. This monitoring shows that some improvement in farm environmental performances would generally be desirable, with stream concentrations of nutrients (N and P), sediment and faecal bacteria regularly exceeding guidelines recommended for surface waters. Field measurements, farm management surveys and farm systems modelling have identified some land management practices that appear to be key sources of many of these pollutants. Border dyke irrigation runoff has a potentially large effect on a range of water quality parameters, due to both the excessive stream flows generated by over-watering and the entrainment of P, N and faecal bacteria in this flow as it passes from land to stream. Stock access to some of the remaining un-fenced lengths of the stream was also recognised as an important land management practice that needed to be addressed if some of the key catchment values identified by stakeholders, such as maintaining a healthy trout fishery and a stream suitable for recreational use, were to be protected. Assessments of the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of a number of potential mitigation practices identified that managements which targeted reducing irrigation runoff (e.g. by installing bunds or using appropriate watering times) and fencing and planting riparian margins showed the greatest potential to meet these key values with least cost to farm businesses. Other farm practices were also identified that incurred nil or minimal cost while also delivering small or moderate benefits to stream water quality.     

Assessment of stormwater runoff management practices and governance under climate change and urbanization: An analysis of Bangkok,Hanoi and Tokyo

As human history is changing on many fronts, it is appropriate for us to understand the different perspectives of major global challenges, of which, water is a major priority. The water resources in urban areas are either approaching or exceeding the limits of sustainable use at alarming rates. Groundwater table depletion and increasing flood events can be easily realized in rapidly developing urban areas. It is necessary to improve existing water management systems for high-quality water and reduced hydro-meteorological disasters, while preserving our natural/pristine environment in a sustainable manner. This can be achieved through optimal collection, infiltration and storage of stormwater. Stormwater runoff is rainfall that flows over the ground surface; large volumes of water are swiftly transported to local water bodies and can cause flooding, coastal erosion, and can carry many different pollutants that are found on paved surfaces. Sustainable stormwater management is desired, and the optimal capture measure is explored in the paper. This study provides commentary to assist policy makers and researchers in the field of stormwater management planning to understand the significance and role of remote sensing and GIS in designing optimal capture measures under the threat of future extreme events and climate change. Community attitudes, which are influenced by a range of factors, including knowledge of urban water problem, are also considered. In this paper, we present an assessment of stormwater runoff management practices to achieve urban water security. For this purpose, we explored different characteristics of stormwater runoff management policies and strategies adopted by Japan, Vietnam and Thailand. This study analyses the abilities of Japanese, Vietnamese and Thai stormwater runoff management policies and measures to manage water scarcity and achieve water resiliency. This paper presents an overview of stormwater runoff management to guide future optimal stormwater runoff measures and management policies within the governance structure. Additionally, the effects of different onsite facilities, including those for water harvesting, reuse, ponds and infiltration, are explored to establish adaptation strategies that restore water cycle and reduce climate change-induced flood and water scarcity on a catchment scale.     

Wastewater and stormwater minimisation in a coal mine

This paper presents a case study on the application of cleaner production principles in the mining industry. The water balance prepared for the case study showed that less than 20% of the wastewater generated by the colliery is discharged off-site. The remaining 80% of the wastewater is recycled back into the colliery. Modeling of the stormwater system showed that 75% of the clean runoff becomes contaminated through poor management practices. It was also found that the present system of stormwater management causes the process wastewater management system to fail in wet weather. Improved process and stormwater management systems are proposed. Relatively simple alterations to the operation of the coal wash filtration dams are expected to reduce the periods of inefficient operation of these dams by 95% and the pumping cost by 30%. The use of stormwater diversion channels and retention basins reduces the overflow volumes of the process wastewater treatment dams in 5 year average recurrence interval (ARI) storms by 100%. The paper also includes several recommendations for reducing the production of process wastewater at source and off-site disposal of wastewater.     

汇流路径对SWMM模型水量模拟结果的影响

随着城市雨水管理信息化的快速发展,数学模型逐渐在城市雨水系统规划设计中得到广泛应用,但模型的模拟精度已成为制约其广泛应用的瓶颈问题之一。以某低影响开发（low impact development,LID）雨水系统为例,基于SWMM模型,系统分析了不同重现期条件下,低影响开发设施占比和汇流路径的差异对雨水径流水量控制效果的影响。模拟结果表明:与不考虑汇流路径相比,考虑汇流路径时雨水径流外排总量削减率为4.32%~26.53%,峰值削减率为38.46%~61.40%。因此,汇流路径对雨水径流外排总量和峰值流量影响均较大,且随着LID设施占比升高而增大,随着降雨重现期的增加而降低。在场地开发过程中,可以通过合理的汇流路径设计,提高场地中LID设施对雨水径流的控制效果。同时,在利用模型对场地雨水控制利用效果评估时,也应充分考虑汇流路径对模拟结果的影响。     

雨洪管理措施的水环境效应差异——基于Meta的中国案例分析

雨洪管理措施的应用可有效控制雨水径流量及其污染物,系统分析雨洪管理措施对径流及其污染物的影响有助于理解雨洪管理的水环境效应。本文基于Meta方法整理国内已发表的文献案例,通过提取雨洪管理措施的类型、应用尺度、降雨特征及径流量和污染物削减率等信息,综述了雨洪管理措施应用后径流量和污染物的变化。结果表明：（1）不同雨洪管理措施所产生的水环境效应存在差异,样本中屋顶绿化的径流削减能力最强,透水铺装的径流污染物削减效果最佳;（2）雨洪管理措施对水环境的影响具有尺度效应,大尺度区域内雨洪管理措施对径流量削减作用较弱,而小尺度区域内径流污染物削减作用较弱;（3）雨洪管理措施对径流量及其污染物的削减能力随降雨量增加呈下降趋势。结合案例数据,系统分析了雨洪管理措施在径流量及其污染物控制效果上的差异及成因,可为径流调控与污染治理等实践提供理论参考。     

山地城市地表径流源区水质特征监测研究

2010年通过对山地城市重庆江北城区10个地表源区5次地表径流过程水样的采集与分析,研究城区地表径流水质特征及其影响因素,以期为地表径流污染源区控制提供科学依据.结果表明,山地城市重庆地表径流污染过程具有明显的初期冲刷效应,降雨强度影响地表径流水质的变化,地表径流水质的波动同雨强的变化呈同步趋势,雨强增加,污染物浓度下降,表现出水质变化的随机性.山地城市重庆地表径流COD、TP与TSS具有显著的正相关性.悬浮物是城市地表径流污染的主要污染物,而且是有机物质和磷素的载体.有机物质与磷素主要以颗粒态的形式存在,而氮素以溶解态的氨和硝酸盐为主.山地城市地表径流水质TSS、COD、TN、TP和NH4+-N在各个源区的差异显著,商业区和城市交通主干道TSS、COD和TP的浓度最高,其次为城市支路、居民区道路、停车场和屋顶.不透水地表功能、交通流量、人流量和卫生管理是影响地表径流水质的主要因素.城市商业区、交通干道和人流量高的居民区道路是城市地表径流污染的关键源区.     

基于源区监测的城市地表径流污染空间分异性研究

通过对汉阳城区14个地表源区4次降雨径流过程水样的采集与分析,研究城市地表径流污染空间分异性及其影响因素,以期为地表径流污染的源区控制提供科学依据.结果表明,城市地表径流颗粒态COD、TN和TP分别占58%±17%、65%±13%和92%±6%,溶解态TN中NH 4+-N、NO 3--N和DON相当.不透水地表功能、交通流量、土地利用、人口密度以及卫生管理水平是影响城市地表径流水质空间分异的主要因素.土地利用对径流污染程度的影响是旧城居民区一般城区居民区/饮食区交通商业区新建区城市绿地,人口密度高和管理差的旧城区径流污染最重;道路地表径流污染程度与交通流量呈正相关,交通流量越高地表径流污染越重,1级交通干道2级干道支路.加强地表卫生的管理,并对地表径流污染产生的关键源区进行控制是减轻城市地表径流对水环境负面影响的有效途径.     

南宁市道路初期雨水径流污染物浓度分析

初期雨水污染是雨水径流污染的主要贡献者,掌握初期雨水的污染特征,对于城市雨水处理设施建设尤为重要。以南宁市为例,开展了城市初期雨水径流污染特性分析,旨在为南宁市海绵城市建设以及雨水处理措施提供参考。选取6个采样点的8场降雨,对常规水质指标(COD、NH3-N、TN、TP、SS)进行分析,揭示了降雨过程中污染物的瞬时浓度分布。结果表明:建成区污染物浓度范围和污染物平均水平均明显高于规划区;不同雨型下,雨水初期冲刷效果强弱顺序为暴雨>大雨>中雨>小雨;除小雨外,其他雨型在降雨20 min左右时污染物浓度达到平衡;暴雨情况下,污染物浓度在5 min内降低50%,15 min内70%~80%的污染物随雨水直排或进入城市管网。     

Integral stormwater management master plan and design in an ecological community

Urban stormwater runoff nearly discharges directly into bodies of water through gray infrastructure in China, such as sewers, impermeable ditches, and pump stations. As urban flooding, water shortage, and other environment problems become serious, integrated water environment management is becoming increasingly complex and challenging. At more than 200 ha, the Oriental Sun City community is a large retirement community located in the eastern side of Beijing. During the beginning of its construction, the project faced a series of serious water environment crises such as eutrophication, flood risk, water shortage, and high maintenance costs. To address these issues, an integral storrnwater management master plan was developed based on the concept of low impact development （LID）. A large number of LID and green stormwater infrastructure （GSI） approaches were designed and applied in the community to replace traditional stormwater drainage systems completely. These approaches mainly included bioretention （which captured nearly 85th percentile volume of the annual runoff in the site, nearly 5.4 x 10^5 m3 annually）, swales （which functioned as a substitute for traditional stormwater pipes）, waterscapes, and stormwater wetlands. Finally, a stormwater system plan was proposed by integrating with the gray water system, landscape planning, an architectural master plan, and related consultations that supported the entire construction period. After more than 10 years of planning, designing, construction, and operation, Oriental Sun City has become one of the earliest modem large-scale LID communities in China. Moreover, the project not only addressed the crisis efficiently and effectively, but also yielded economic and ecological benefits.     

Regulating oil and gas facility stormwater discharge: An assessment of surface impoundments,spills, and permit compliance

Contaminated stormwater runoff from oil and gas (O&G) operations can pose a significant threat to surface waters. The purpose of this study is to examine the extent of this threat and identify more specific permitting requirements to protect surface waters. To better understand the extent of the threat, this paper identified and characterized the use of waste surface impoundments at O&G facilities as well as the threat level from O&G spills in California. To assess the efficacy of the current federal and California state-permitting regime, the paper evaluated stormwater permit compliance in two California counties. It also reviewed selected spill cases and associated Spill Prevention, Control and Countermeasure Plans and Stormwater Pollution Prevention Plans to identify the adequacy of current industry practices.The analysis showed that contaminated stormwater from O&G facilities can be better regulated. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency does not require O&G facilities to file for an Industrial Stormwater General Permit even though many O&G industry practices have the potential to contaminate stormwater runoff from the site. When O&G facilities discharge a Reportable Quantity of a hazardous chemical or violate a water quality standard, they are required to enroll in the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System permit program. Spills, although not a direct indication of stormwater runoff, can highlight polluted runoff discharges that should have been regulated. Medium and large spills that reached waterways were such a risk for which operators did not file for a permit. In California new filing requirements for the oil and gas industry require all facilities that discharge stormwater that has come into contact with any overburden, raw material, or intermediate products located on the site, to file for an Industrial Stormwater General Permit. As this study showed, there has been an increase in enrollment since the enactment of the new requirements. Having all facilities enroll in the general permit program, as done in California, would require minimum monitoring and maintenance that could help prevent spills. A further step to ensure better protocol is to require specific pollution control practices in addition to the current general permit requirements. Such permitting regimes not only can be implemented on the US federal level but also internationally.     

厦门市城市绿地雨洪减排效应评价

城市绿地在对雨水的渗透、滞留和调蓄方面具有非常显著的作用,能够有效削减城市的雨洪流量,缓解内涝压力.以海绵城市试点——厦门市为典型区,在日降雨数据、土地利用数据、土壤类型数据、城市绿地空间分布数据和城市建成区空间范围数据等多源数据的支撑下,系统评价了厦门市建成区城市绿地的雨洪减排效应.其中,雨洪减排效应的实物量通过SCS（Soil Conservation Service）模型进行评估,价值量则利用替代市场法进行估算.结果表明:2010年厦门市单位城市绿地削减的雨洪径流深为262.28 mm,削减的雨洪径流总量为4 385.40×104 m3,减排服务价值为2.75×108元;2015年单位城市绿地削减的雨洪径流深为335.77 mm,削减的雨洪径流总量为7 634.37×104 m3,减排服务价值为5.49×108元.城市绿地面积、降水量及其时程分配是影响城市绿地雨洪减排效应的关键因子,在其共同驱动下,2015年厦门市城市绿地的雨洪减排效应较2010年显著增加.研究显示,SCS模型在数据输入和参数率定等方面具有显著优势,能够在地理空间上连续模拟厦门市整个建成区的产流量,进而实现行政区单元和城市绿地类型单元雨洪减排效应的双重评价,3种城市绿地类型（乔木、灌木和草本）单位面积的雨洪减排效应并无明显差异,受绿地面积支配,厦门市80%的城市绿地雨洪减排效应由乔木绿地产生.      

Market-based approaches and tools for improving water and air quality

Nitrogen (N) losses from agriculture are negatively impacting groundwater, air, and surface water quality. National, state, and local policies and procedures that can mitigate these problems are needed. Market-based approaches where waste treatment plants (point sources) can purchase nutrient credits from upstream agricultural operations (non-point sources) to meet their National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System permit requirements within the Clean Water Act are being explored. This paper reviews these market-based approaches for enhancing air and water quality at a lower cost than simple command-and-control regulation, and describes new tools that are being developed, such as Nitrogen Trading Tool (NTT), that can be used to assess nitrogen losses to the environment under different management scenarios. The USDA-NRCS, EPA and several other state and local agencies are interested in these new tools. The NTT, though primarily designed for water quality markets, also estimates savings in nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions that can be traded in carbon markets. For example, an analysis using NTT shows that for 100 ha of crop land, a C sequestration equivalent of approximately 25–38 Mg C y^?1 for a farm in Ohio, and 13–21 Mg C y^?1 for a farm in Virginia could be achieved with better nitrogen management practices. These numbers across a watershed could be much larger with improved N and conservation management practices that contribute to better water quality and lower global warming potential. There is a need to further develop, calibrate, and validate these tools to facilitate nitrogen and carbon trading future markets around the globe to increase environmental conservation across agro-ecosystems worldwide.     

Monitoring and verifying agricultural practices related to soil carbon sequestration with satellite imagery

The Kyoto Protocol entering into force on 16 February 2005 continues to spur interest in development of carbon trading mechanisms internationally and domestically. Critical to the development of a carbon trading effort is verification that carbon has been sequestered, and field level measurement of C change is likely cost prohibitive. Estimating C change based on agricultural management practices related to carbon sequestration seems more realistic, and analysis of satellite imagery could be used to monitor and verify these practices over large areas. We examined using Landsat imagery to verify crop rotations and quantify crop residue biomass in north central Montana. Field data were collected using a survey of farms. Standard classification tree analysis (CTA) and boosted classification and regression tree analysis (BCTA) were used to classify crop types. Linear regression (LM), regression tree analysis (RTA), and stochastic gradient boosting (SGB) were used to estimate crop residue. Six crop types were classified with 97% accuracy (BCTA) with class accuracies of 88–99%. Paired t-tests were used to compare the difference between known and predicted mean crop residue biomass. The difference between known and predicted mean residues using SGB was not different than 0 (p-value = 0.99); however root mean square error (RMSE) was large (1981 kg ha⁻¹), implying that SGB accurately predicted regional crop residue biomass but not local predictions (i.e., field or farm level). The results of this study, and previous research classifying tillage practices and estimating soil disturbance, supports using satellite imagery as an effective tool for monitoring and verifying agricultural management practices related to carbon sequestration over large areas.     

Are soils of Iowa USA currently a carbon sink or source? Simulated changes in SOC stock from 1972 to 2007

Upscaling the spatial and temporal changes in carbon (C) stocks and fluxes from sites to regions is a critical and challenging step toward improving our understanding of the dynamics of C sources and sinks over large areas. This study simulated soil organic C (SOC) dynamics within 0–100 cm depth of soils across the state of Iowa in the USA from 1972 to 2007 using the General Ensemble biogeochemical Modeling System (GEMS). The model outputs with variation coefficient were analyzed and assembled from simulation unit to the state scale based upon major land use types at annual step. Results from this study indicate that soils (within a depth of 0–100 cm) in Iowa had been a SOC source at a rate of 190 ± 380 kg C ha^?1 yr^?1. This was likely caused by the installation of a massive drainage system which led to the release of SOC from deep soil layers previously protected under poor drainage conditions. The annual crop rotation was another major force driving SOC variation and resulted in spatial variability of annual budgets in all croplands. Annual rate of change of SOC stocks in all land types depended significantly on the baseline SOC levels; soils with higher SOC levels tended to be C sources, and those with lower levels tended to be C sinks. Management practices (e.g., conservation tillage and residue management practices) slowed down the C emissions from Iowa soils, but could not reverse the general trend of net SOC loss in view of the entire state due mainly to a high level of baseline SOC stocks.     

2次降雨间隔时间对城市地表径流污染负荷的影响

2003～2005年通过对武汉市十里铺集水区12次降雨径流的水量和水质过程监测,研究了城市降雨径流污染负荷同2次降雨间隔时间的关系,探讨了城市地表状况、排水系统管理以及降雨特征在城市降雨径流污染负荷形成中的作用.结果表明,城市降雨径流污染负荷受2次降雨间隔时间和降雨径流量的共同影响.2次降雨间隔时间与初期降雨径流污染负荷存在显著的正相关关系 (p<0.01).汉阳地区城市地表卫生管理差和雨、污合流制的排水系统是城市径流污染负荷形成的主要原因.可以利用2次降雨间隔时间和降雨径流量预测城市降雨径流污染负荷.加强城市地表卫生管理和排水系统的管理,降低污染物在晴天累积的程度,从源头上减少污染物的数量,是有效控制城市降雨径流污染的首先途径.     

Fractionation of heavy metals in runoff and discharge of a stormwater management system and its implications for treatment

A stormwater management system utilizing the mechanisms of sedimentation and filtration/infiltration was developed and constructed for the immobilization of suspended solids and heavy metal constituents （Fe, Zn, Pb, Cr, Cu, Cd, Ni） in runoff. Monitoring took place between May 2010 and November 2012 on a total of 24 storm events. This research on the fractionation of heavy metals in runoff and discharge of a stormwater system provided insight on the actual efficiency of the system and determined the implications for treatment of the particulate-bound and dissolved heavy metals in runoff. Results revealed that the partitioning of heavy metal load in runoff in either dissolved or particulate-bound were influenced by flow rate and total suspended solids load, and evident in high-intensity storm （rainfall-runoff event）. On the other hand, the partitioning of heavy metal load discharge from the stormwater system was more apparent during the early period of discharge having higher variability in dissolved than particulate-bound heavy metal. Findings revealed that fractionation of heavy metals played an important role in the performance of the stormwater system; thus, must be considered in designing stormwater systems. For the stormwater system to be effective, it is recommended to design the system treating not only the early period of a storm （first flush criteria） rather until the peak part of the hydrograph （high flow rate where partitioning was greatest） from a load basis.     

Soil C storage as affected by tillage and straw management: An assessment using field measurements and model predictions

Soil tillage and straw management are both known to affect soil organic matter dynamics. However, it is still unclear whether, or how, these two practices interact to affect soil C storage, and data from long term studies are scarce. Soil C models may help to overcome some of these problems. Here we compare direct measurements of soil C contents from a 9 year old tillage experiment to predictions made by RothC and a cohort model. Soil samples were collected from plots in an Irish winter wheat field that were exposed to either conventional (CT) or shallow non-inversion tillage (RT). Crop residue was removed from half of the RT and CT plots after harvest, allowing us to test for interactive effects between tillage practices and straw management. Within the 0–30 cm layer, soil C contents were significantly increased both by straw retention and by RT. Tillage and straw management did not interact to determine the total amount of soil C in this layer. The highest average soil C contents (68.9 ± 2.8 Mg C ha^?1) were found for the combination of RT with straw incorporation, whereas the lowest average soil C contents (57.3 ± 2.3 Mg C ha^?1) were found for CT with straw removal. We found no significant treatment effects on soil C contents at lower depths. Both models suggest that at our site, RT stimulates soil C storage largely by decreasing the decomposition of old soil C. Extrapolating our findings to the rest of Ireland, we estimate that RT will lead to C mitigation ranging from 0.18 to 1.0 Mg C ha^?1 y^?1 relative to CT, with the mitigation rate depending on the initial SOC level. However, on-farm assessments are still needed to determine whether RT management practices can be adopted under Irish conditions without detrimental effects on crop yield.     

城市雨水径流热污染特征、负荷评估及其控制对策研究进展

目前我国关于城市雨水径流污染的研究大多集中于SS、COD、TN、TP、重金属、难降解有机物等污染物,而对于雨水径流热污染问题尚缺乏系统研究。城市雨水径流热污染不仅会导致水体溶解氧浓度降低,还会危及冷水性鱼类等水生生物的生存,进而破坏整个水生态系统的平衡。通过综述国内外城市雨水径流热污染研究进展,系统分析了城市雨水径流热污染来源及主要影响因素、城市雨水径流热污染机理和冲刷规律、城市雨水径流热污染负荷评估模型及方法比较、城市雨水径流热污染控制对策等,并提出了我国今后在雨水径流热污染方面的发展方向,以期为城市雨水径流热污染控制和土地可持续开发提供科学依据。     

生物滞留设施对雨水径流氮磷污染物净化机理和运行优化方式研究进展

生物滞留设施是城市雨水管理和海绵城市建设的典型技术措施之一,其对城市雨水径流中氮、磷污染物的净化机理和控制效果受到研究人员广泛关注。通过系统梳理生物滞留设施对不同形态氮、磷的净化机理研究进展,分析了传统生物滞留设施对雨水径流中氮、磷污染物的控制效果;进而从设施填料组合与配比、淹没出流区设置、碳源添加和填料填装方式4个方面,系统分析了生物滞留设施对雨水径流中氮、磷污染物净化效果的提升方式和效果。基于目前研究的不足和海绵城市建设中实际工程技术需求,从生物滞留设施对雨水径流氮、磷污染物控制方面展望了未来重点研究方向。