The new assessment of soil loss by water erosion in Europe. Panagos P. et al., 2015 Environmental Science & Policy 54, 438–447—A response

We respond to an article by Panagos et al.—‘The new assessment of soil loss by water erosion in Europe’ in Environ. Sci. Policy, 2015, 54, 438–447. It is aimed at helping policy makers make better decisions. The assessment uses a Geographical Information Systems approach based on the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation. RUSLE is based on data gained from plot experiments. The authors assume RUSLE is the only way to assess erosion and ignore critiques of erosion models and other ways of assessing erosion. A different way of assessing water erosion, based on collecting information on extent, frequency and rates, mainly from farmers’ fields but also grazed uplands, has been carried out over recent decades in Britain. The two ways of assessing erosion, one largely theoretical, the other based on reality, evolved in response to particular situations. However, they should relate well to each other. We show that the model is inappropriate to assess soil loss by water erosion in Britain, not only for agricultural land but also for uncultivated land. Predicted high rates of erosion do not relate well to where erosion actually occurs and are too high, and the model takes no account of the spatial extent of erosion on the ground. In other words, the model does not reflect reality. Policy decisions should not be taken based on such a model. Erosion must be assessed in a better way with a large field-based element.     

How farmers view their job in Pays de Caux,France: Consequences for grassland in water erosion

In Pays de Caux, runoff and erosion frequently generate damages. Ploughing up grassland is one of the causes of their increase. To apprehend this issue, the authors studied the conceptions of a group of farmers, farming the same catchment, through a socio-anthropological approach.According to this analysis, two types of farms are identified: the ‘managers’ looking at the profitability per hectare, and the ‘livestock farmers’, for whom the global income of farming is more important. The latter are severely depreciated, by the others and by themselves, and are generally not taken over. Nevertheless, their grasslands are more steady than the ‘managers’ ones, and their preservation is important to combat erosion.The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) does not suggest any measures supporting grassland of these ‘small livestock farmers’. Local subsidies could not only support them economically but could also contribute to decrease their depreciation. This may be a way to manage the risk of soil erosion. However, the results are established at the catchment level and further enquiries are needed to extend them. It is possible to build a network of places in Europe, with the aim of thinking propositions at the CAP level.     

Integrating science,policy and farmers to reduce soil loss and sediment delivery in Flanders,Belgium

This paper describes the evolution of soil erosion perception with policy makers and farmers in Flanders, and how these changes have resulted in the emergence of a soil conservation policy. Until the mid 1990s, soil erosion and its related problems received little attention in the environmental debate. This has changed through increased interest in environmental issues in general, as well as an increasing number of scientific reports on soil erosion and sediment delivery. New legislation that made the sediment problem a big financial issue in 1995, however, was the main reason for the recognition of soil erosion as an environmental problem with the policy makers. Despite the lack of monitoring soil erosion, a soil conservation policy emerged recently, which is clearly represented in the 2001 “soil erosion decree” by the Flemish government. This policy provides important opportunities for soil conservation as it incorporates both scientists and farmers. The involvement of farmers in demonstration projects is crucial with this respect as they have to be convinced about the usefulness and applicability of soil conservation measures. Farmers also participate in the development of a management plan. However, the success of the new policy could be undermined by its rapid development. There is still a lack of data underpinning the status of the erosion problem, and, the goals of the policy are not clearly defined. Furthermore, the administrative organisation is currently not favourable for an optimal co-operation with the farmers.     

Farmer perception of runoff and erosion and extent of flooding in the silt-loam belt of the Belgian Walloon Region

Flooding, and in particular muddy floods resulting from erosion of agricultural land, is of growing concern to decision makers and the public in western Europe and is frequently blamed on agricultural land use. Two surveys were therefore undertaken in the Walloon Region of Belgium, one among all municipalities to assess the extent of flooding, and one among 1500 farmers in the silt-loam and sandy-loam agricultural regions to evaluate the extent of runoff and erosion problems on-farm and what, if any, control measures are currently implemented by farmers. Twenty-seven percent of the municipalities in Wallonia have been confronted with floods at least once every 2 years over the last decade. For the silt-loam and sandy-loam regions specifically, 68% of the municipalities have had to deal with at least one flooding event directly attributed to agricultural runoff during the last 10 years. Runoff or erosion was observed at least once every other year on average by 26% of the farmers during the last decade. The occurrence of erosion was positively correlated to the area of row crops and negatively correlated to winter cereals. On average, 74% of the farmers are taking active measures to control erosion but farmers with erosion problems are more likely to take measures. Farmers with a higher level of education are also more likely to implement erosion control measures (ECMs) than less educated farmers. It appears therefore that greater efforts need to be expended on awareness raising among less educated farmers and towards the development, testing and demonstration of additional ECMs if flooding problems are to be reduced in the future.     

Climate change policy and water resources in the EU and Spain. A closer look into the Water Framework Directive

Climate change effects are becoming evident worldwide, with serious regional and local impacts. The European Union (EU) has launched and developed initiatives and policies that scratch the surface of water resources impacts. This article presents an introduction of the existing environmental policy and more concisely in the areas of climate change and the interactions with water resources. It also addresses main management tools, and plans linked to policies, recent updates on the Science–Policy Interface, highlighting major results from research and development projects. Establishing appropriate policies to tackle climate change impacts on water is essential given the cross-sectorial and flowing nature and the importance of water in all environmental, social and economic sectors. There are still some pending reviews and updates in the current EU policy and its implementation, as well as at the national level in Spain. This article identifies existing gaps, and provides recommendations on how and where reforms could take place and be applied by decision makers in the water policy sector.     

QUICKScan as a quick and participatory methodology for problem identification and scoping in policy processes

Policy making is required in cases in which a public good needs to be either maintained or created, and private or civil initiatives cannot deal alone with this. Policy making thus starts with a phase of problem identification and determining whether there is a problem that needs to be dealt with. Rapidly evolving contexts exert influence on policy makers who have to take decisions much faster and more accurately than in the past, also facing greater complexity. There is a need for a method that lowers the lead time of the exploratory phase of the policy cycle. At the same time the method should create a joint understanding of the most important interactions. This paper proposes QUICKScan, a method, process and spatially explicit tool, to jointly scope policy problems in a participatory setting, investigate the most important interactions and feedbacks and assesses the state of knowledge and data of relevance to the problem. QUICKScan uses strongly moderated participatory workshops bringing together a wide range of stakeholders relevant to the policy issue. These moderated workshops jointly build an expert system in a spatially explicit tool using functionality of bayesian belief networks, python programming, simple map algebra and knowledge matrices, with a strong focus on visualization of results. QUICKScan has been applied in 70 different applications in a range of different policy contexts, stakeholders and physical locations. Through these applications participants were able to internalize the knowledge that was usually handed to them in briefs and reports, to develop a joint understanding of the main interactions and their link to impacts and to develop a problem statement and solution space in a reduced lead time. Ultimately, QUICKScan demonstrates another role of science, not solely as a knowledge production, but also facilitating the knowledge consumption.     

Modelling the effect of support practices (P-factor) on the reduction of soil erosion by water at European scale

The USLE/RUSLE support practice factor (P-factor) is rarely taken into account in soil erosion risk modelling at sub-continental scale, as it is difficult to estimate for large areas. This study attempts to model the P-factor in the European Union. For this, it considers the latest policy developments in the Common Agricultural Policy, and applies the rules set by Member States for contour farming over a certain slope. The impact of stone walls and grass margins is also modelled using the more than 226,000 observations from the Land use/cover area frame statistical survey (LUCAS) carried out in 2012 in the European Union.The mean P-factor considering contour farming, stone walls and grass margins in the European Union is estimated at 0.9702. The support practices accounted for in the P-factor reduce the risk of soil erosion by 3%, with grass margins having the largest impact (57% of the total erosion risk reduction) followed by stone walls (38%). Contour farming contributes very little to the P-factor given its limited application; it is only used as a support practice in eight countries and only on very steep slopes. Support practices have the highest impact in Malta, Portugal, Spain, Italy, Greece, Belgium, The Netherlands and United Kingdom where they reduce soil erosion risk by at least 5%. The P-factor modelling tool can potentially be used by policy makers to run soil-erosion risk scenarios for a wider application of contour farming in areas with slope gradients less than 10%, maintaining stone walls and increasing the number of grass margins under the forthcoming reform of the Common Agricultural Policy.     

A reply to panagos et al., 2016 (Environmental science & policy 59 (2016) 53–57

We respond to the article by Panagos et al. in Environmental Science & Policy 2016, 59, 53–57. We first outline the history of assessing water erosion of cultivated land in Britain, to place in context why a model approach has not been considered the best way to assess erosion in Britain. Since 1982 a field- based approach has been consistently chosen. We then consider three particular points of contention between ourselves and Panagos et al.—1) the importance of wash erosion, 2) the cost of carrying out a field-based assessment of erosion, and 3) that the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation should be the harmonized method to assess soil loss. Last, we respond to individual points made by Panagos et al. before drawing some conclusions. One conclusion is that a more harmonious way of assessing erosion was put forward in 2004 by Gobin et al. combining both field-based and model assessments, but unfortunately that route was not taken by researchers at the Joint Research Centre.     

Contexualising the tool development process through a knowledge brokering approach: The case of climate change adaptation and agriculture

This article applies a ‘knowledge brokering’ approach to contextualise the development of an integrated computer modelling tool into the real world policy context of adaptation of agriculture to climate change at the EU level. In particular, the article tests a number of knowledge brokering strategies described and theorised in the literature, but seldom empirically tested. The article finds that while the policy context can be used to identify a theoretically informed knowledge brokering strategy, in practice a strategy's ‘success’ is more informed by practical considerations, such as whether the tool development process is knowledge or demand driven. In addition, in practice the knowledge brokering process is found to be dynamic and messy, which is not always apparent in the literature. The article goes on to question the perception that there is always a need (or a desire) to bridge the gap between researchers and policy makers in the tool development process. Rather than a problem of design and communication, the science policy interface may be characterised more by a high level of competition between researchers and research organisations to have their tool legitimised by its use in the policy making process.     

Runoff and sediment losses from 27 upland catchments in Southeast Asia: Impact of rapid land use changes and conservation practices

Rapid changes in upland farming systems in Southeast Asia generated predominantly by increased population pressure and ‘market forces’ have resulted in widespread land degradation that has been well documented at the plot scale. Yet, the links between agricultural activities in the uplands and downstream off-site effects remain largely unknown because of the difficulties in transferring results from plots to a larger scale. Many authors have thus pointed out the need for long-term catchment studies. The objective of this paper is to summarize the results obtained by the Management of Soil Erosion Consortium (MSEC) over the last 5 years from 27 catchments in five countries (Indonesia, Laos, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam). The purpose of the study was to assess the impacts of cultivation practices on annual runoff and erosion rates. Initial surveys in each catchment included topography, soils and land use. Monitoring included climatic, hydrologic and erosion (total sediment yield including bed load and suspended sediment load) data, land use and crop yields, and farmers’ income. In addition, new land management options were introduced through consultations with farmers and evaluated in terms of runoff and erosion. These included tree plantations, fruit trees, improved fallow with legumes, maize intercropped with legumes, planted fodder, native grass strips and agro-ecological practices (direct sowing and mulch-based conservation agriculture). Regressions analyses showed that runoff during the rainy season, and normalized runoff flow coefficient based on erosive rainfall during the rainy season (rainfall with intensity exceeding 25 mm h⁻¹) increase with the percentage of the catchment covered by maize. Both variables decrease with increasing soil depth, standard deviation of catchment slope (that reflects terrain roughness), and the percentages of the catchment covered by fallow (regular and improved), tree plantations and planted fodder. The best predictors of sediment yield were the surface percentages of maize, Job's tears, cassava and footpaths. The main conclusions generated from this study were: (i) soil erosion is predominantly influenced by land use rather than environmental characteristics not only at the plot scale but also at the catchment scale; (ii) slash-and-burn shifting cultivation with sufficiently long rotations (1 year of cultivation, 8 years of fallow) is too often unjustly blamed for degradation; (iii) in its place, continuous cropping of maize and cassava promotes high rates of soil erosion at the catchment scale; (iv) conservation technologies are efficient in reducing runoff and total sediment yield at the catchment scale; (v) the adoption of improved soil management technologies by upland farmers is not a function of the degree of intensification of their farming system and/or of their incomes. The results suggest that if expansion of maize and cassava into already degraded upland systems were to occur due to increased demand for biofuels, there is a risk of higher runoff and sediment generation. A failure to adopt appropriate land use management strategies will result in further rapid resource degradation with negative impacts to downstream communities.     

Assessment of stormwater runoff management practices and governance under climate change and urbanization: An analysis of Bangkok,Hanoi and Tokyo

As human history is changing on many fronts, it is appropriate for us to understand the different perspectives of major global challenges, of which, water is a major priority. The water resources in urban areas are either approaching or exceeding the limits of sustainable use at alarming rates. Groundwater table depletion and increasing flood events can be easily realized in rapidly developing urban areas. It is necessary to improve existing water management systems for high-quality water and reduced hydro-meteorological disasters, while preserving our natural/pristine environment in a sustainable manner. This can be achieved through optimal collection, infiltration and storage of stormwater. Stormwater runoff is rainfall that flows over the ground surface; large volumes of water are swiftly transported to local water bodies and can cause flooding, coastal erosion, and can carry many different pollutants that are found on paved surfaces. Sustainable stormwater management is desired, and the optimal capture measure is explored in the paper. This study provides commentary to assist policy makers and researchers in the field of stormwater management planning to understand the significance and role of remote sensing and GIS in designing optimal capture measures under the threat of future extreme events and climate change. Community attitudes, which are influenced by a range of factors, including knowledge of urban water problem, are also considered. In this paper, we present an assessment of stormwater runoff management practices to achieve urban water security. For this purpose, we explored different characteristics of stormwater runoff management policies and strategies adopted by Japan, Vietnam and Thailand. This study analyses the abilities of Japanese, Vietnamese and Thai stormwater runoff management policies and measures to manage water scarcity and achieve water resiliency. This paper presents an overview of stormwater runoff management to guide future optimal stormwater runoff measures and management policies within the governance structure. Additionally, the effects of different onsite facilities, including those for water harvesting, reuse, ponds and infiltration, are explored to establish adaptation strategies that restore water cycle and reduce climate change-induced flood and water scarcity on a catchment scale.     

A schematic view of resources,technology and environment in agricultural development

Agricultural production systems can be viewed as consisting of three interrelated components: resources, technology, and environment (R-T-E). The quantities, qualities and terms of availability of resources condition the kinds of technology available to farmers and their choices among them. The technologies employed, in turn, may damage the environment, generating demands for policies to reduce the damages, and they also affect the future terms of availability of resources. The components of R-T-E systems are thus interdependent, and the relations among them change with time.In thinking about the future of world R-T-E systems in agriculture it is useful to group countries in four categories, given presently available technologies: (1) low productivity potential/high land potential; (2) high productivity potential/high land potential; (3) high productivity potential/low land potential; and (4) low productivity potential/low land potential. Given prospective increases in real prices, or scarcity of energy, fertilizer, and water for irrigation, farmers in Category 1 countries (e.g., the United States) are likely to respond by adopting more land-using technologies than in the past, and soil erosion is likely to be the most important resulting environmental problem. In Category 2 countries (e.g., Brazil) also, land-using technologies will appear attractive, but the use of agricultural chemicals will also increase sharply. Environmental problems of erosion, habitat loss and pesticide damage are likely to increase. Category 3 countries (e.g., India) will adopt more land-saving technologies despite rising prices of non-land inputs, and environmental problems associated with large irrigation systems are likely to become more important. The options for Category 4 countries (e.g., Western Europe) are more limited. The most likely response will be towards larger farms rather than major changes in technology. Environmental impacts of agriculture are not now of major importance in these countries and this is not likely to change.Governments have three broad options for dealing with energing problems of agricultural R-T-E systems. The traditional approaches rely on regulations or on a variety of financial inducements to move farmers towards more socially desirable patterns of resource use. A third, less traditional, approach is to invest in development of new technologies which simultaneously are economically attractive to farmers and less damaging to the environment.     

Towards mitigation of greenhouse gases by small changes in farming practices: understanding local barriers in Spain

Small changes in agricultural practices have a large potential for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. However, the implementation of such practices at the local level is often limited by a range of barriers. Understanding the barriers is essential for defining effective measures, the actual mitigation potential of the measures, and the policy needs to ensure implementation. Here we evaluate behavioural, cultural, and policy barriers for implementation of mitigation practices at the local level that imply small changes to farmers. The choice of potential mitigation practices relevant to the case study is based on a literature review of previous empirical studies. Two methods that include the stakeholders’ involvement (experts and farmers) are undertaken for the prioritization of these potential practices: (a) Multi-criteria analysis (MCA) of the choices of an expert panel and (b) Analysis of barriers to implementation based on a survey of farmers. The MCA considers two future climate scenarios – current climate and a drier and warmer climate scenario. Results suggest that all potential selected practices are suitable for mitigation considering multiple criteria in both scenarios. Nevertheless, if all the barriers for implementation had the same influence, the preferred mitigation practices in the case study would be changes in fertilization management and use of cover crops. The identification of barriers for the implementation of the practices is based on the econometric analysis of surveys given to farmers. Results show that farmers’ environmental concerns, financial incentives and access to technical advice are the main factors that define their barriers to implementation. These results may contribute to develop effective mitigation policy to be included in the 2020 review of the European Union Common Agricultural Policy.     

An analysis of the likely success of policy actions under uncertainty: Recovery from acidification across Great Britain

In the context of wider debates about the role of uncertainty in environmental science and the development of environmental policy, we use a Generalised Likelihood Uncertainty Estimate (GLUE) approach to address the uncertainty in both acid deposition model predictions and in the sensitivity of the soils to assess the likely success of policy actions to reduce acid deposition damage across Great Britain. A subset of 11, 699 acid deposition model runs that adequately represented observed deposition data were used to provide acid deposition distributions for 2005 and 2020, following a substantial reduction in SO₂ and NO_x emissions. Uncertain critical loads data for soils were then combined with these deposition data to derive estimates of the accumulated exceedance (AE) of critical loads for 2005 and 2020. For the more sensitive soils, the differences in accumulated exceedance between 2005 and 2020 were such that we could be sure that they were significant and a meaningful environmental improvement would result. For the least sensitive soils, critical loads were largely met by 2020, hence uncertainties in the differences in accumulated exceedance were of little policy relevance. Our approach of combining estimates of uncertainty in both a pollution model and an effects model, shows that even taking these combined uncertainties into account, policy-makers can be sure that the substantial planned reduction in acidic emissions will reduce critical loads exceedances. The use of accumulated exceedance as a relative measure of environmental protection provides additional information to policy makers in tackling this ‘wicked problem’.     

Quantification and control of microbial pollution from agriculture: a new policy challenge?

Faecal indicator organisms (FIOs) are commonly used to quantify pollution of public health significance. Health protection, as indexed by FIO control, is a central aim of new ‘catchment-scale’ water quality management required in the USA by the Clean Water Act and in the European Union (EU) by the Water Framework Directive (WFD). Experience of the former, after a decade of implementation, suggests that the most significant reason for water quality ‘impairment’ is elevated FIO concentrations, mainly in recreational and shellfish harvesting waters. This provides an early warning of possible problems which the EU regulatory authorities are likely to face. To date, however, a surprising lack of EU attention has been given to prediction and control of catchment fluxes of this key parameter. This is likely to prove embarrassing if the experience of the US regulatory community is not acted upon with some urgency. There is a growing, though still partial, body of empirical science to form the ‘evidence-base’ for good regulatory practice. However, adoption of ‘best management practices’ (BMPs) to effect remediation of impacted waters will require close integration of water policy with policies on financial support for the farming community. This is likely to require enhanced communication and integration within the discrete policy communities addressing the agricultural sector through the Common Agricultural Policy and water regulation through the Water Framework Directive.     

Reconciling the supply of scientific information with user demands: an analysis of the problem and review of the literature

Policy makers around the world are calling for the production and diffusion of more useful information for environmental decision-making. Ideally, useful information expands alternatives, clarifies choice and enables policy makers to achieve desired outcomes. Decision makers, however, often lack the useful information needed for good decision-making. By concentrating efforts on increasing the supply of scientific information, scientists may not be producing information considered relevant and useful by decision makers, and may simply be producing too much of the wrong kind of information. Users may have specific information needs that go unmet, or may not be aware of the existence of potentially useful information. This paper defines the practical problem of reconciling the supply of scientific information with users’ demands so that scientists produce information that decision makers need and use in policy decisions. Literature from a variety of disciplines and topics is reviewed to: explain the goals of reconciling the supply and demand of scientific information; define what constitutes useful information; explore lessons learned from experience and describe the characteristics and conditioning factors that shaped those experiences; and identify various alternative strategies and processes that forge stronger science policy linkages. The paper concludes with recommendations for future research.     

Constructing collaborative communities of researchers in the environmental domain. A case study of interdisciplinary research between legal scholars and policy analysts

The article offers an analysis of the interactions between legal and policy science researchers within a European project on flood risk management using a “Policy Arrangement Approach” (PAA). While interdisciplinary research is increasingly becoming a ‘must’ in environmental governance, under what conditions is cooperation possible and desirable? Our analysis shows that the PAA is not mobilized as an interdisciplinary method, but offers a framework for researchers from different disciplines to learn to work together on a subject such as flooding, requiring interdisciplinary insights. The paper shows the steps that are progressively put in place to reach a common language and reformulate issues by benefitting from each other’s view and approaches. The article concludes by drawing attention to new means of knowledge production relating to so-called “messy” or “wicked” problems, such as environmental issues. Within this framework, interdisciplinary work is not considered to be a pre-condition for the study, but rather the result of the research process itself. The analysis draws attention to the actual (working) conditions established to create an interdisciplinary community of flooding practices by challenging disciplinary borders.     

Conducting and delivering integrated research to influence land-use policy: salinity policy in Australia

Researchers can find the process of engaging with policy to be both rewarding and frustrating. In the context of land-use policy, we discuss various aspects of the research-policy nexus, including the various influences of research and policy on land use, the adoption of research results by policy makers, differences between policy and research, and the roles that researchers can play in policy. We present a case study from Australia in which a range of research into land use was integrated to develop an investment framework for policy makers and natural resource managers. We conclude that, to enhance their influence on land-use policy, researchers should strive to: understand the policy maker's perspective, practice excellent communication, be solution oriented, find a champion, avoid appearances of vested interest, and be simple, patient, persistent, resilient, responsive and timely.     

Scientists versus policy-makers: Building capacity for productive interactions across boundaries in the urban water sector

This paper critically reflects on a trial process for building the capacity of researchers to influence policy-makers in the urban water sector in Australia. Framed as an action research inquiry, this study brought together multidisciplinary teams of researchers to make policy pitches to simulated panels of current and former politicians, senior bureaucrats and industry representatives. The simulations were analysed with respect to tactics for pitching, methods of communication, use of evidence and participants’ reflections on the experience. Participants effectively used scientific research evidence to support a broad vision of water sensitive cities, but were less effective in articulating risk analyses, assessing economic impacts, and proposing appropriate policy instruments to enable their proposed visions to be operationalised. Dramaturgical analysis highlighted the implications of positioning scientists versus policy-makers, which ‘typecast’ participants in roles that restricted scientists’ ability to credibly argue policy ideas. It is proposed that teams of scientists and policy-makers ‘rehearse’ together to manage expectations, develop arguments that will cut through in policy contexts, and produce ideas that shape and are shaped and improved by the policy context.     

Brazilian biofuels and social exclusion: established and concentrated ethanol versus emerging and dispersed biodiesel

Increasing interest in biofuels trade between developed and developing countries has spurred worldwide discussions on issues such as subsidies and the ‘food for fuel’ crisis. One issue missing in recent discourse is the pressure exerted on developing countries to adopt large-scale mechanized farming practices to increase economic efficiencies. Such approaches often exclude small-scale farmers from participating in the emerging biofuels market, thus exacerbating poverty and social exclusion. Drawing on both qualitative and technical data, we discuss such pressures using Brazilian ethanol and biodiesel production. Pressure from international markets to become more economically efficient may contribute towards the erosion of recent schemes to encourage social benefits for small farmers in biodiesel production. We conclude with trade and policy implications.