Discharge of pharmaceutical products (PPs) through a conventional biological sewage treatment plant: MECs vs PECs?

Pharmaceuticals for human use are consumed in significant quantities and their occurrence in aquatic systems has been reported by a number of authors. In the context of environmental risk assessment, there is an increasing interest in evaluating the discharge of pharmaceutical products to surface waters through sewage treatment plants (STP). This case study was carried out on a conventional biological treatment plant (Alès, France) and focused on a set of eleven drugs representing the main therapeutic classes. Measured environmental concentrations (MECs) range from the low ng L^? 1 to 1.5 µg L^? 1 in effluent and up to few hundred ng L^? 1 in receiving surface waters. There is a good agreement between MEC and predicted environmental concentration (PEC) values for seven of the eleven investigated drugs in STP effluent. There is not such a good match between PEC and MEC values in surface waters, and this highlights the limits of this approach, at the local scale.     

Occurrence,removal and bioaccumulation of steroid estrogens in Dianchi Lake catchment,China

The occurrence, removal and bioaccumulation of steroid estrogens such as the natural estrone (E1), 17β-estradiol (E2) and estriol (E3), as well as the synthetic 17α-ethynylestradiol (EE2) were investigated in Dianchi Lake catchment, China. The results show that traditional secondary treatment processes in eight sewage treatment plants (STPs) of Kunming were not efficient enough to completely remove steroid estrogens, but ultraviolet (UV) photodegradation in advanced treatment displayed more effectively for the removal of the residual compounds. The amount of total steroid estrogens (∑ SEs) discharged to Dianchi Lake catchment by the eight STPs was 35.8 g/day, in which STP-3 was the dominant source, accounting for 50.8%. Because of the pollution input from treated and untreated sewages, estrogens were widely detected in surface water and sediment samples collected from 21 inflow rivers of Dianchi Lake, 10 National Surface Water Quality Monitoring Sites of the lake itself and its unique outflow river, with the mean concentration of ∑ SEs in the range of 5.3–798.2 ng/L (water) and 3.7–202.4 ng/g (dry weight, sediment), 1.5–39.2 ng/L (water) and 2.7–20.9 ng/g (sediment), and 4.2 ng/L (water) and 6.6 ng/g (sediment), respectively. Due to the continuous input of estrogens to Dianchi Lake from STPs and inflow rivers, present estrogen levels in various tissues of wild fish species sampled from the lake (2013) were higher than the values detected in the previous years (2009 and 2010). The bioaccumulation of steroid estrogens in wild fish species from different sampling sites was in the order of STP-5 > Dianchi Lake (2013) > Dianchi Lake (2010) ≈ Dianchi Lake (2009) ≫ field control > laboratory control, which is mainly affected by exposure concentrations. By employing risk quotient (RQ), it is found that eco-toxicological risk of steroid estrogens in Dianchi Lake catchment was in a sequence of 22 rivers > effluents of eight STPs > Dianchi Lake (2013) > Dianchi Lake (2010), and high RQs were found in EE2, which should be controlled preferentially in this catchment.     

Environmental estrogens in an urban aquatic ecosystem: I. Spatial and temporal occurrence of estrogenic activity in effluent-dominated systems

The present study investigated occurrence of environmental estrogens (EEs) in waterways managed by the Metropolitan Water Reclamation District of Greater Chicago (‘District’) — one of the largest and most complex water districts in the United States. The objectives of the study were: (i) to document spatial and temporal occurrence of EEs in the Chicago Area Waterways (CAWs); (ii) to determine whether water reclamation plant (WRP) effluents contribute to estrogenic pollution of the receiving streams; (iii) to determine whether the mandated water quality monitoring data could be used to predict estrogenic pollution in the receiving streams; and (iv) to determine whether snow melt, storm runoff and combined sewer overflows may also be contributors of estrogenic activity to these systems. The estrogenic potency of the waterways was assessed using a cell-based reporter gene assay. The water quality data was readily available as part of the District's regular monitoring program. Our findings indicate that EEs are commonly found in the CAWs, and that WRP effluents are one of, but not the only important contributor to estrogenic activity. Mean estrogenic activities in CAWs (11 ng estradiol equivalents (EEQs/L)) are well within the values reported for other urban areas and WRP effluents. The estrogenic activity exhibited significant seasonal variation with highest values noted during the spring and summer months. When comparing the mean estrogenic activity of general use waters, secondary contact waters and WRP effluents, we found that general use waters had significantly lower estrogenic activity (ca 5 ng EEQ/L) than the other two matrices (ca 15 and 17 ng EEQ/L respectively). Our analyses indicate that estrogenic activity of the waterways was not reliably associated with mandated water quality parameters, and that such measurements may not be useful for predicting estrogenic activity, especially so in the complex urban systems. One of the prominent findings of this study is that EEs do not follow predictable spatial patterns — many of the upstream sites in the heavily urbanized areas had levels of estrogenic activity comparable to those found in the effluents and downstream locations. Our data suggest that surface runoff and snow melt are estrogenic (0–9 ng EEQ/L), and given that their estrogenic activities are similar to those of their receiving waterways (0–7 ng EEQ/L), we conclude that these non-WRP sources are important contributors to estrogenic activity of the CAWs.     

Emission of artificial sweeteners,select pharmaceuticals,and personal care products through sewage sludge from wastewater treatment plants in Korea

Concern over the occurrence of artificial sweeteners (ASWs) as well as pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in the environment is growing, due to their high use and potential adverse effects on non-target organisms. The data for this study are drawn from a nationwide survey of ASWs in sewage sludge from 40 representative wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) that receive domestic (WWTP_D), industrial (WWTP_I), or mixed (domestic plus industrial; WWTP_M) wastewaters in Korea. Five ASWs (concentrations ranged from 7.08 to 5220 ng/g dry weight [dw]) and ten PPCPs (4.95–6930 ng/g dw) were determined in sludge. Aspartame (concentrations ranged from 28.4 to 5220 ng/g dw) was determined for the first time in sewage sludge. The median concentrations of ASWs and PPCPs in sludge from domestic WWTPs were 0.8–2.5 and 1.0–3.4 times, respectively, the concentrations found in WWTPs that receive combined domestic and industrial wastewaters. Among the five ASWs analyzed, the median environmental emission rates of aspartame through domestic WWTPs (both sludge and effluent discharges combined) were calculated to be 417 μg/capita/day, followed by sucralose (117 μg/capita/day), acesulfame (90 μg/capita/day), and saccharin (66 μg/capita/day). The per-capita emission rates of select PPCPs, such as antimicrobials (triclocarban: 158 μg/capita/day) and analgesics (acetaminophen: 59 μg/capita/day), were an order of magnitude higher than those calculated for antimycotic (miconazole) and anthelmintic (thiabendazole) drugs analyzed in this study. Multiple linear regression analysis of measured concentrations of ASWs and PPCPs in sludge revealed that several WWTP parameters, such as treatment capacity, population-served, sludge production rate, and hydraulic retention time could influence the concentrations found in sludge.     

Prediction of environmental concentrations of glucocorticoids: The River Thames,UK, as an example

Synthetic glucocorticoids (GCs) are consumed in large amounts as anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive drugs worldwide. Based on what has been learnt from studies of other human pharmaceuticals, they are likely to be present in the aquatic environment. However, to date, information on the environmental concentrations of GCs is very limited. The situation is complicated by the fact that a considerable number of GCs are in everyday use in most developed countries. Hence, obtaining a full picture of GC concentrations in the aquatic environment using the traditional analytical chemistry approach would be time-consuming and expensive. Thus, we took a modelling approach to predict the total environmental concentration of all synthetic GCs (consisting of 28 individual GCs) in the River Thames, as a first step in risk assessment of these drugs. Using reliable data on consumption, the LF2000-WQX model predicts mean concentrations up to 30 ng/L of total GCs in surface water as a best case scenario when the lowest excretion and highest removal rates in sewage treatment works were used, whereas mean concentrations up to 850 ng/L were predicted when the highest excretion and lowest removal rates are considered. We also present the 10th and 90th percentile concentrations (which indicate the likely range of concentrations seen from high flow to low flow conditions in the river) of the highest and lowest consumed GCs, to show the spatial and temporal variations of the concentrations of individual GCs. These data probably provide reliable estimates of the likely range of concentrations of GCs in a typical river impacted by effluent from many sewage treatment plants. Results also identify the hot spots where field studies on fish could be focused. To determine if aquatic organisms face any threat from GCs, laboratory toxicity studies should be conducted using concentrations similar to those reported here.     

Boron exposure through drinking water during pregnancy and birth size

BackgroundBoron is a metalloid found at highly varying concentrations in soil and water. Experimental data indicate that boron is a developmental toxicant, but the few human toxicity data available concern mostly male reproduction.ObjectivesTo evaluate potential effects of boron exposure through drinking water on pregnancy outcomes.MethodsIn a mother-child cohort in northern Argentina (n = 194), 1–3 samples of serum, whole blood and urine were collected per woman during pregnancy and analyzed for boron and other elements to which exposure occurred, using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Infant weight, length and head circumference were measured at birth.ResultsDrinking water boron ranged 377–10,929 μg/L. The serum boron concentrations during pregnancy ranged 0.73–605 μg/L (median 133 μg/L) and correlated strongly with whole-blood and urinary boron, and, to a lesser extent, with water boron. In multivariable-adjusted linear spline regression analysis (non-linear association), we found that serum boron concentrations above 80 μg/L were inversely associated with birth length (B − 0.69 cm, 95% CI − 1.4; − 0.024, p = 0.043, per 100 μg/L increase in serum boron). The impact of boron appeared stronger when we restricted the exposure to the third trimester, when the serum boron concentrations were the highest (0.73–447 μg/L). An increase in serum boron of 100 μg/L in the third trimester corresponded to 0.9 cm shorter and 120 g lighter newborns (p = 0.001 and 0.021, respectively).ConclusionsConsidering that elevated boron concentrations in drinking water are common in many areas of the world, although more screening is warranted, our novel findings warrant additional research on early-life exposure in other populations.     

Exploring the fate,transport and risk of Perfluorooctane Sulfonate (PFOS) in a coastal region of China using a multimedia model

Perfluorooctane Sulfonate (PFOS) and related substances have been widely applied in both industrial processes and domestic products in China. Exploring the environmental fate and transport of PFOS using modeling methods provides an important link between emission and multimedia diffusion which forms a vital part in the human health risk assessment and chemical management for these substances. In this study, the gridded fugacity based BETR model was modified to make it more suitable to model transfer processes of PFOS in a coastal region, including changes to PFOS partition coefficients to reflect the influence of water salinity on its sorption behavior. The fate and transport of PFOS in the Bohai coastal region of China were simulated under steady state with the modified version of the model. Spatially distributed emissions of PFOS and related substances in 2010 were estimated and used in these simulations. Four different emission scenarios were investigated, in which a range of half-lives for PFOS related substances were considered. Concentrations of PFOS in air, vegetation, soil, fresh water, fresh water sediment and coastal water were derived from the model under the steady-state assumption. The median modeled PFOS concentrations in fresh water, fresh water sediment and soil were 7.20 ng/L, 0.39 ng/g and 0.21 ng/g, respectively, under Emission Scenario 2 (which assumed all PFOS related substances immediately degrade to PFOS) for the whole region, while the maximum concentrations were 47.10 ng/L, 4.98 ng/g and 2.49 ng/g, respectively. Measured concentration data for PFOS in the Bohai coastal region around the year of 2010 were collected from the literature. The reliability of the model results was evaluated by comparing the range of modeled concentrations with the measured data, which generally matched well for the main compartments. Fate and transfer fluxes were derived from the model based on the calculated inventory within the compartments, transfer fluxes between compartments and advection fluxes between sub-regions. It showed that soil and costal water were likely to be the most important sinks of PFOS in the Bohai costal region, in which more than 90% of PFOS was stored. Flows of fresh water were the driving force for spatial transport of PFOS in this region. Influences of the seasonal change of fresh water fluxes on the model results were also analyzed. When only seasonal changes of the fresh water flow rates were considered, concentrations of PFOS in winter and spring were predicted to be higher than that under annual average conditions, while the concentrations in summer and autumn were lower. For PFOS fluxes entering the sea, opposite conclusions were drawn compared to the concentrations. Environmental risks from the presence of PFOS in fresh water were assessed for this region through comparison with available water quality criteria values. The predicted concentrations of PFOS in the Bohai coastal region provided by the model were lower than the water quality criteria published by the United States Environmental Protection Agency and Chinese researchers, while the concentrations in more than 80% of the sampling locations exceeded the European Union Water Framework Directive Environmental Quality Standards values. Seasonal variations of flow rate might cause a significant increase in environmental risks.     

Perfluorinated compounds in surface waters from Northern China: Comparison to level of industrialization

Inclusion of Perfluorooctane Sulfonate (PFOS) in the Stockholm Convention because of its exemptions, has resulted in increased annual production of PFOS-containing chemicals in China to accommodate domestic and overseas demands. Accordingly, concern about environmental contamination with perfluorinated compounds (PFCs), such as PFOS, has arisen. However, little information is available on the status and trends in the distribution, sources or risk of PFCs in aquatic environments of China. In the present study, forty two surface water samples collected from five regions with different levels of industrialization were monitored for concentrations of PFCs by use of solid phase extraction and LC/MS/MS. Mean concentrations (maximum concentration) of PFOA and PFOS, which were the dominant PFCs, were 1.2 (2.3) and 0.16 (0.52) ng/l for Guanting, 1.2 (1.8) and 0.32 (1.1) ng/l for Hohhot, 2.7 (15) and 0.93 (5.7) ng/l for Shanxi, 6.8 (12) and 2.6 (11) ng/l for Tianjin, 27 (82) and 4.7 (31) ng/l for Liaoning, respectively. The greatest concentrations of PFCs (121 ng/l), PFOA (82 ng/l) and PFOS (31 ng/l) were observed in Liaoning, which might originate from tributaries of the Liaohe River, the most polluted watershed in Northeast China. While, concentrations of PFCs in the Guanting and Hohhot regions were 3 to 20 fold less than those from Tianjin and Liaoning. This result is consistent with little contribution of PFCs being released from agricultural and non-industrial activities. The magnitudes of mass flow for PFOA and PFOS in decreasing order were: Guanting < Hohhot < Tianjin < Liaoning < Shanxi and Guanting < Hohhot < Shanxi < Tianjin < Liaoning. The larger mass flows of PFOS were accompanied by relatively larger magnitudes of PFOA. Concentrations of both PFOA and PFOS in waters from all regions were less than suggested allowable concentrations. However, the relatively greater concentrations of PFCs in Tianjin and Liaoning suggest that further studies characterizing their sources and potential risk to both humans and wildlife are needed.     

Persistent organic pollutants in the Scheldt estuary: Environmental distribution and bioaccumulation

Levels of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) were determined in the sediment and several species (European flounder, Platichthys flesus; common sole, Solea solea; Chinese mitten crab, Eriocheir sinensis; shore crab, Carcinus maenas; brown shrimp, Crangon crangon; blue mussel, Mytilus edulis and bristle worms, Polychaeta) from 7 locations in the Scheldt estuary (SE, the Netherlands–Belgium). Overall POP levels in the sediment were low. The average PCB and PBDE concentrations were respectively 31.5 and 115 ng/g dry weight (dw). Highest sediment loads were measured in the vicinity of Antwerp (368 ng PCBs/g dw), a location with intense harbor and industrial activities. Pollution concentrations in the tissues of biota were species-specific. Blue mussels contained the highest lipid concentrations (2.74 ± 0.55%) and reached the highest contamination levels (from 287 to 1688 ng PCBs/g ww, from 2.09 to 12.4 ng PBDEs/g ww). Lowest tissue loads were measured in brown shrimp (from 3.27 to 39.9 ng PCBs/g ww, from 0.05 to 0.47 ng PBDEs/g ww). The PCB congener profile in most of the species was similar with the pattern found in the sediment. PCB 153 was the most abundant congener (16.5–25.7% in biota, 10.4% in sediment). In the sediment, the total amount of PBDEs consisted for more than 99% of BDE 209. Congener BDE 47 had the highest concentrations in all sampled species (38.5–70.1%). Sediment POP loadings and tissue concentrations were poorly correlated, indicating that a simple linear or non-linear relationship is insufficient to describe this relationship, possible caused by the complexity of the bioaccumulation processes and the variability in exposure. Because of the high PCB levels, regular consumption of fish and seafood, especially mussels, from the Scheldt estuary should be avoided.     

Comparing human exposure to emerging and legacy flame retardants from the indoor environment and diet with concentrations measured in serum

This study investigates associations between serum concentrations of emerging and legacy halogenated flame retardants (HFRs) in 46 Norwegian women and measured indoor air and dust concentrations of the HFRs as well as detailed information on diet and household factors. Hexabromobenzene (median 0.03 ng/g lipid) and Dechlorane 602 (median 0.18 ng/g lipid) were detected in about 50% of the samples and Dechlorane Plus syn (median 0.45 ng/g lipid) and anti (median 0.85 ng/g lipid) in more than 78%. The most abundant polybrominated diphenyl ethers were 2,2′,4,4′,5,5′-hexabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-153; median 0.82 ng/g lipid) and 2,2′,4,4′-tetrabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-47; median 0.49 ng/g lipid) detected in more than 70% of the samples. In the bivariate analysis, no consistent associations were observed between the biomonitoring data and measured concentrations in indoor air and dust. On the other hand, consumption of specific food items (mainly lamb/mutton and margarine) correlated significantly with more than two HFR serum concentrations, while this was not the case for household factors (electronic appliances). Only the significant bivariate associations with diet were confirmed by multivariate linear regression analyses, which might indicate a higher contribution from food compared to the indoor environment to the variation of the body burden of these HFRs.     

A comparative assessment of human exposure to tetrabromobisphenol A and eight bisphenols including bisphenol A via indoor dust ingestion in twelve countries

Tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) and eight bisphenol analogues (BPs) including bisphenol A (BPA) were determined in 388 indoor (including homes and microenvironments) dust samples collected from 12 countries (China, Colombia, Greece, India, Japan, Kuwait, Pakistan, Romania, Saudi Arabia, South Korea, U.S., and Vietnam). The concentrations of TBBPA and sum of eight bisphenols (ƩBPs) in dust samples ranged from < 1 to 3600 and from 13 to 110,000 ng/g, respectively. The highest TBBPA concentrations in house dust were found in samples from Japan (median: 140 ng/g), followed by South Korea (84 ng/g) and China (23 ng/g). The highest ∑ BPs concentrations were found in Greece (median: 3900 ng/g), Japan (2600 ng/g) and the U.S. (2200 ng/g). Significant variations in BPA concentrations were found in dust samples collected from various microenvironments in offices and homes. Concentrations of TBBPA in house dust were significantly correlated with BPA and ∑ BPs. Among the nine target chemicals analyzed, BPA was the predominant compound in dust from all countries. The proportion of TBBPA in sum concentrations of nine phenolic compounds analyzed in this study was the highest in dust samples from China (27%) and the lowest in Greece (0.41%). The median estimated daily intake (EDI) of ∑ BPs through dust ingestion was the highest in Greece (1.6–17 ng/kg bw/day), Japan (1.3–16) and the U.S. (0.89–9.6) for various age groups. Nevertheless, in comparison with the reported BPA exposure doses through diet, dust ingestion accounted for less than 10% of the total exposure doses in China and the U.S. For TBBPA, the EDI for infants and toddlers ranged from 0.01 to 3.4 ng/kg bw/day, and dust ingestion is an important pathway for exposure accounting for 3.8–35% (median) of exposure doses in China.     

DDTs in mothers' milk,placenta and hair,and health risk assessment for infants at two coastal and inland cities in China

This study is a one of the very few investigating the dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethanes (DDTs) (summation of o,p′-DDE, p,p′-DDE, o,p′-DDD, p,p′-DDD, o,p′-DDT, and p,p′-DDT) in multiple human matrices in mothers' milk, placenta and hair collected from residents from two coastal cities: Guiyu (GY) and Taizhou (TZ) and one inland city: Lin'an (LA). TZ (milk: 360 ± 319 ng/g lipid wt.) showed significantly higher concentrations of DDTs than those from LA (milk: 190 ± 131 ng/g lipid wt.), whereas, concentrations of DDTs in GY (milk: 305 ± 109 ng/g lipid wt.) were in between TZ and LA. In addition, levels of DDTs in the human tissues from TZ (placenta: 122 ± 109 ng/g lipid wt.; hair: 79.9 ± 215 ng/g dry wt.) were significantly higher than those from Lin'an (placenta: 49.2 ± 30.2 ng/g lipid wt.; hair: 10.8 ± 7.09 ng/g dry wt.). The above concentrations of DDTs in milk exceeded the Codex Maximum Residue Limits/Extraneous Maximum Residue Limits for milk (20 ng/g lipid wt. whole milk), indicating that the human milk samples were grossly polluted. The present study revealed that human specimens collected from the coastal city (TZ) were more contaminated with inland one (LA), based on the levels of DDTs contained in samples which may be due to the higher dietary exposure to DDTs via consumption of contaminated seafood. The estimated daily intakes of DDTs by GY, TZ and LA infants were 1.69 ± 1.86, 1.48 ± 0.79, and 0.95 ± 0.73 μg/kg body wt./day, respectively which did not exceed 10 μg/kg body wt./day, the provisional tolerable daily intake proposed by the Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization.     

A survey of cyclic and linear siloxanes in indoor dust and their implications for human exposures in twelve countries

Siloxanes are used widely in a variety of consumer products, including cosmetics, personal care products, medical and electrical devices, cookware, and building materials. Nevertheless, little is known on the occurrence of siloxanes in indoor dust. In this survey, five cyclic (D3–D7) and 11 linear (L4–L14) siloxanes were determined in 310 indoor dust samples collected from 12 countries. Dust samples collected from Greece contained the highest concentrations of total cyclic siloxanes (TCSi), ranging from 118 to 25,100 ng/g (median: 1380), and total linear siloxanes (TLSi), ranging from 129 to 4990 ng/g (median: 772). The median total siloxane (TSi) concentrations in dust samples from 12 countries were in the following decreasing order: Greece (2970 ng/g), Kuwait (2400), South Korea (1810), Japan (1500), the USA (1220), China (1070), Romania (538), Colombia (230), Vietnam (206), Saudi Arabia (132), India (116), and Pakistan (68.3). TLSi concentrations as high as 42,800 ng/g (Kuwait) and TCSi concentrations as high as 25,000 ng/g (Greece) were found in indoor dust samples. Among the 16 siloxanes determined, decamethylcyclopentasiloxane (D5) was found at the highest concentration in dust samples from all countries, except for Japan and South Korea, with a predominance of L11; Kuwait, with L10; and Pakistan and Romania, with L12. The composition profiles of 16 siloxanes in dust samples varied by country. TCSi accounted for a major proportion of TSi concentrations in dust collected from Colombia (90%), India (80%) and Saudi Arabia (70%), whereas TLSi predominated in samples collected from Japan (89%), Kuwait (85%), and South Korea (78%). Based on the measured median TSi concentrations in indoor dust, we estimated human exposure doses through indoor dust ingestion for various age groups. The exposure doses ranged from 0.27 to 11.9 ng/kg-bw/d for toddlers and 0.06 to 2.48 ng/kg-bw/d for adults.     

Can starling eggs be useful as a biomonitoring tool to study organohalogenated contaminants on a worldwide scale?

Large-scale international monitoring studies are important to assess emission patterns and environmental distributions of organohalogenated contaminants (OHCs) on a worldwide scale. In this study, the presence of OHCs was investigated on three continents (Europe, North America and Australasia), using eggs of starlings (Sturnus vulgaris and Sturnus unicolor) to assess their suitability for large-scale monitoring studies. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study using bird eggs of the same species as a biomonitor for OHCs on an intercontinental scale. We found significant differences in OHC concentrations of the eggs among sampling locations, except for hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs). Mean concentrations of sum polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in eggs ranged from 78 ± 26 ng/g lipid weight (lw) in Australia to 2900 ± 1300 ng/g lw in the United States. The PCB profile was dominated by CB 153 and CB 138 in all locations, except for New Zealand, where the contribution of CB 95, CB 101 and CB 149 was also high. The highest mean sum polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) concentrations were found in Canada (4400 ± 830 ng/g lw), while the lowest mean PBDE concentrations were measured in Spain (3.7 ± 0.1 ng/g lw). The PBDE profile in starling eggs was dominated by BDE 47 and BDE 99 in all countries, but in Belgium, the higher brominated PBDEs had a higher contribution compared to other countries. For the organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes (DDTs) ranged from 110 ± 16 ng/g lw in France to 17,000 ± 3400 ng/g lw in New Zealand, while HCHs and hexachlorobenzene were generally in low concentrations in all sampling locations. Chlordanes were remarkably high in eggs from the United States (2500 ± 1300 ng/g lw). The OCP profile in all countries was largely dominated by p,p′-DDE. In general, the worldwide trends we observed in starling eggs were in accordance with the literature on human and environmental OHC data, which suggests that there is potential for using starling eggs as a biomonitoring tool on a large geographical scale.     

Occurrence of parabens in foodstuffs from China and its implications for human dietary exposure

Parabens are alkyl esters of p-hydroxybenzoic acid and are used as antimicrobial preservatives in a range of consumer products, including cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and foodstuffs. Despite their widespread use, prior to this study, paraben concentrations in foodstuffs from China and human dietary exposure to these chemicals have been unknown. In this study, concentrations of six parabens were determined in 13 categories of food samples (n = 282), including cereals and cereal products, meat, fish and seafood, eggs, dairy products, bean products, fruits, vegetables, cookies, beverages, cooking oils, condiments, and others, collected from nine cities in China. Almost all (detection rate: 99%) food samples contained at least one of the parabens analyzed, and the total concentrations (ΣParabens; sum of six parabens) ranged from below limit of quantification (LOQ) to 2530 ng/g fresh weight, with an overall mean value of 39.3 ng/g. Methyl paraben (MeP), ethyl paraben (EtP), and propyl paraben (PrP) were the major paraben analogs found in foodstuffs, and these compounds accounted for 59%, 24%, and 10%, respectively, of ΣParaben concentrations. Although the mean concentrations of ΣParabens varied among different categories of food items (from 0.839 ng/g in beverages to 100 ng/g in vegetables), the concentrations were not statistically significant among the 13 food categories, including canned foodstuffs. Estimated daily intake (EDI) of parabens was based on the measured concentrations in foods and the corresponding daily food ingestion rates. The mean and 95th percentile values for EDI were 1010 and 3040 ng/kg body weight (bw)/day for adult men and 1060 and 3170 ng/kg bw/day for adult women, respectively.     

Analysis of phytoestrogens,progestogens and estrogens in environmental waters from Rio de Janeiro (Brazil)

The environment is currently exposed to a large variety of man-made chemicals (e.g. for industrial, medicinal use) which have potential adverse effects to its ecological status. In addition, the densely populated areas represent local high emissions of those chemicals leading to more aggravating consequences. Estrogenic compounds that end-up in environmental water directly affect living organisms by interfering with their endocrine metabolism. The assessment of their presence in the environment requires sensitive and selective analytical methods. Nineteen estrogenic compounds belonging to different classes (5 free estrogens, 6 conjugated estrogens, 3 progestogens and 5 phytoestrogens) have been studied. The analytical methodology developed is based on solid phase extraction followed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry and has been applied to study the occurrence of the above mentioned analytes in environmental waters from the state of Rio de Janeiro (Brazil). Due to insufficient infra-structure in this region, waste waters are released onto the environment without or with incomplete previous treatment. The results show that high levels of the phytoestrogens daidzein, coumestrol and genistein of up to 366 ng/L and progesterone of up to 47 ng/L could be found in river water. Estrogens and their conjugated derivatives were detected in the lower ng/L range up to 7 ng/L. The main estrogens estrone, estradiol and the synthetic ethinyl estradiol could not be detected. The developed method showed overall good performance with recoveries above 80% (with one exception), limits of detection ≤ 2 ng/L, good linearity and reproducibility.     

Elevated childhood exposure to arsenic despite reduced drinking water concentrations — A longitudinal cohort study in rural Bangladesh

ObjectivesThe aim of this study was to evaluate the massive efforts to lower water arsenic concentrations in Bangladesh.MethodsIn our large mother–child cohort in rural Matlab, we measured the arsenic concentrations (and other elements) in drinking water and evaluated the actual exposure (urinary arsenic), from early gestation to 10 years of age (n = 1017).ResultsMedian drinking water arsenic decreased from 23 (2002–2003) to < 2 μg/L (2013), and the fraction of wells exceeding the national standard (50 μg/L) decreased from 58 to 27%. Still, some children had higher water arsenic at 10 years than earlier. Installation of deeper wells (> 50 m) explained much of the lower water arsenic concentrations, but increased the manganese concentrations. The highest manganese concentrations (~ 900 μg/L) appeared in 50–100 m wells. Low arsenic and manganese concentrations (17% of the children) occurred mainly in > 100 m wells. The decrease in urinary arsenic concentrations over time was less apparent, from 82 to 58 μg/L, indicating remaining sources of exposure, probably through food (mean 133 μg/kg in rice).ConclusionDespite decreased water arsenic concentrations in rural Bangladesh, the children still have elevated exposure, largely from food. Considering the known risks of severe health effects in children, additional mitigation strategies are needed.     

Monitoring exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in an Australian population using pooled urine samples

Integrated exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) can be assessed through monitoring of urinary mono-hydroxylated PAHs (OH-PAHs). The aim of this study was to provide the first assessment of exposure to PAHs in a large sample of the population in Queensland, Australia including exposure to infant (0–4 years). De-identified urine specimens, obtained from a pathology laboratory, were stratified by age and sex, and pooled (n = 24 pools of 100) and OH-PAHs were measured by gas chromatography–isotope dilution–tandem mass spectrometry. Geometric mean (GM) concentrations ranged from 30 ng/L (4-hydroxyphenanthrene) to 9221 ng/L (1-naphthol). GM of 1-hydroxypyrene, the most commonly used PAH exposure biomarker, was 142 ng/L. The concentrations of OH-PAHs found in this study are consistent with those in developed countries and lower than those in developing countries. We observed no association between sex and OH-PAH concentrations. However, we observed lower urinary concentrations of all OH-PAHs in samples from infants (0–4 years), children (5–14 years) and the elderly (> 60 year old) compared with samples from other age groups (15–29, 30–44 and 45–59 years) which may be attributed to age-dependent behaviour-specific exposure sources.     

Daily intake of bisphenol A and triclosan and their association with anthropometric data,thyroid hormones and weight loss in overweight and obese individuals

Bisphenol A (BPA) and triclosan (TCS) were determined in urine of Belgian overweight and obese (n = 151) and lean (n = 43) individuals. After the first urine collection (0 M), obese patients started a diet program or have undergone bariatric surgery. Hereafter, three additional urine samples from obese patients were collected after 3 (3 M), 6 (6 M) and 12 (12 M) months. Both compounds were detected in > 99% of the samples. BPA had median concentrations of 1.7 and 1.2 ng/mL in obese and lean groups, respectively, while TCS had median concentrations of 1.5 and 0.9 ng/mL in the obese and lean groups, respectively. The obese group had higher urinary concentrations (ng/mL) of BPA (p < 0.5), while no significant differences were found for TCS between the obese and lean groups. No time trends between the different collection moments were observed. The BPA concentrations in the obese group were negatively associated with age, while no gender difference or relationship with body mass index was observed. For TCS, no relationships with gender, BMI, or age were found. The temporal variability of BPA and TCS was assessed with calculation of the intraclass correlation coefficient, Spearman rank correlation coefficients, and surrogate category analysis. We observed evidence that single spot urine samples might be predictive of exposure over a longer period of time. Dietary intakes of BPA and TCS did not differ significantly among the time points considered after obese individuals started losing weight (6 and 12 months). Multiple linear regression analyses after adjusting for age and weight loss revealed negative associations between urinary TCS and serum FT4 in the 0 M and 3 M female obese individuals and positive associations between urinary BPA and serum TSH in the lean group.     

Groundwater contamination by microbiological and chemical substances released from hospital wastewater: Health risk assessment for drinking water consumers

Contamination of natural aquatic ecosystems by hospital wastewater is a major environmental and human health issue. Disinfectants, pharmaceuticals, radionuclides and solvents are widely used in hospitals for medical purposes and research. After application, some of these substances combine with hospital effluents and, in industrialised countries, reach the municipal sewer network. In certain developing countries, hospitals usually discharge their wastewater into septic tanks equipped with diffusion wells. The discharge of chemical compounds from hospital activities into the natural environment can lead to the pollution of water resources and risks for human health. The aim of this article is to present: (i) the steps of a procedure intended to evaluate risks to human health linked to hospital effluents discharged into a septic tank equipped with a diffusion well; and (ii) the results of its application on the effluents of a hospital in Port-au-Prince. The procedure is based on a scenario that describes the discharge of hospital effluents, via septic tanks, into a karstic formation where water resources are used for human consumption. COD, Chloroform, dichlomethane, dibromochloromethane, dichlorobromomethane and bromoform contents were measured. Furthermore, the presence of heavy metals (chrome, nickel and lead) and faecal coliforms were studied. Maximum concentrations were 700 NPP/100 ml for faecal coliforms and 112 mg/L for COD. A risk of infection of 10^? 5 infection per year was calculated. Major chemical risks, particularly for children, relating to Pb(II), Cr(III), Cr(VI) and Ni(II) contained in the ground water were also characterised. Certain aspects of the scenario studied require improvement, especially those relating to the characterisation of drugs in groundwater and the detection of other microbiological indicators such as protozoa, enterococcus and viruses.