Marine protected areas and local coastal conservation and management in Hong Kong

This paper focuses on the role of marine parks and reserves in the conservation of Hong Kong's coastal environment. This environment is under serious threat as a result of pollution of marine waters and habitat loss associated with urbanisation, large-scale reclamation projects, and inadequate treatment and disposal of sewage and industrial effluents. The paper discusses whether in a highly urbanised and stressed environment like Hong Kong, which currently lacks a conservation strategy and an overall framework for handling sustainability issues, small marine parks and reserves can be effective in helping to conserve local biodiversity. The paper also suggests that Hong Kong should adopt a broader regional perspective on its coastal conservation and management problems, a perspective that recognises the significance for the territory of the rapid urban and industrial development taking place in neighbouring Guangdong Province. This will require more extensive and focused liaison with Chinese agencies.     

Rural blight and land use planning in Hong Kong

Reader in the Department of Geography and Geology at the University of Hong Kong. Despite the rapid urbanization of Hong Kong over the last few decades, until the late 1960s a serene countryside, contrasting with the bustling city close at hand, was left by default. Whereas many of the extra-urban hills have been designated as country parks, which guards them against development, the farmland and villages in the lowland have been intruded upon increasingly by non-conforming uses. The new-town programme initiated in the 1970s accelerated the rural degradation. Agricultural decline and urban-generated forces such as city expansion, land-value appreciation, port development, suburbanization and China trade provided the impetus. Urban-oriented activities, in particular open storage and port back-up, informal factories and village houses, began to encroach indiscriminately. A landmark court judgement in 1983 allowing such uses of farmland initiated a rampant spread and rural blight. The small rural realm has telescoped and accentuated the degradation. The policy of minimum interference in indigenous villagers' affairs accounted partly for the slow response. Belated statutory measures, introduced in 1991, ushered modern planning into the rural areas for the first time. The long-term policy aims at containing the proliferation, discontinuing uses at sensitive locations and opening sites and facilities for orderly accommodation of an inevitable urban overspill.     

A Quantitative Analysis of Biodiversity and the Recreational Value of Potential National Parks in Denmark

Denmark has committed itself to the European 2010 target to halt the loss of biodiversity. Currently, Denmark is in the process of designating larger areas as national parks, and 7 areas (of a possible 32 larger nature areas) have been selected for pilot projects to test the feasibility of establishing national parks. In this article, we first evaluate the effectiveness of the a priori network of national parks proposed through expert and political consensus versus a network chosen specifically for biodiversity through quantitative analysis. Second, we analyze the potential synergy between preserving biodiversity in terms of species representation and recreational values in selecting a network of national parks. We use the actual distribution of 973 species within these 32 areas and 4 quantitative measures of recreational value. Our results show that the 7 pilot project areas are not significantly more effective in representing species than expected by chance and that considerably more efficient networks can be selected. Moreover, it is possible to select more-effective networks of areas that combine high representation of species with high ranking in terms of recreational values. Therefore, our findings suggest possible synergies between outdoor recreation and biodiversity conservation when selecting networks of national parks. Overall, this Danish case illustrates that data-driven analysis can not only provide valuable information to guide the decision-making process of designating national parks, but it can also be a means to identify solutions that simultaneously fulfill several goals (biodiversity preservation and recreational values).     

Objective Assessment of Countryside Recreation by Observation

It has been shown that strategic planning for countryside recreation may be based on an inadequate level of empirical information regarding countryside recreational activity. Questionnaire surveys provide most of the available data and the limitations of these are discussed. A methodology for investigating recreational activity is proposed and tested in Mid Wales using the observation of discrete areas of randomly selected Ordnance Survey 1 km grid squares. The results illustrate the type of countryside resource that is being used, the activities undertaken and the number of people involved. It is concluded that observation is a valuable tool in understanding the nature of recreation in the wider countryside.     

The costs to farmers and estate owners of public access to the countryside

This paper considers the external costs of public access on privately‐owned farm and estate land in Scotland. The increased costs and reductions in income associated with public access are found to be highly variable and site‐specific, with the main effects on land in areas of high population density or high scenic quality, or with recreational attributes. Although costs were on average higher for estates, reflecting their larger area and recreational potential, on a per‐hectare basis the costs of access were greater for the farm sector. Whilst much of the public access exists through de facto rights on open‐access land, there was evidence for an increasing commercialization of open‐air recreation, particularly with respect to more specialized activities. The discussion considers the extent to which the costs of access for land managers are reflected in policies determining the public provision of countryside access.     

Improving visitor management approaches for the changing preferences and behaviours of country park visitors in Hong Kong

This study identified the changing preferences of country park visitors in Hong Kong and the potential for such changes to have further negative impacts on the ecologically sensitive areas of country parks. A questionnaire was used to collect feedback from 644 country park visitors to understand their preferences and visitation patterns. To investigate visitors’ preferences and behaviours and to develop better visitor management strategies, the survey data were compared with studies conducted 20 years ago. The results showed that the most popular nature‐based activities of 20 years ago, namely, picnicking and barbecuing, have significantly declined in popularity, while other activities, namely, nature studies and nature photography, have surged in popularity in recent years. These changes in visitor preferences have directly increased the negative impacts of visitors on country parks as they dispersed away from the high intensity recreation zones to the ecological sensitive areas. This emerging group of country park visitors has not been fully considered in the existing approach to visitor management and may irreversibly impact the ecological value of country parks. In this study, visitor management in Hong Kong's country parks was reviewed based on these research findings, and potential improvements were suggested.     

Agricultural and recreational impacts of the conservation reserve program in rural North Dakota, USA

The Conservation Reserve Program (CRP), created in 1985, provides conservation benefits and agricultural supply control through voluntary, long-term retirement of crop land. While the effects of the CRP on the agricultural sector are well understood, the implications of its conservation benefits for rural economies remain largely undocumented. To quantify the effects on rural economies, this study addressed the net economic effects of decreased agricultural activity and increased recreational activity associated with the CRP in six rural areas of North Dakota from 1996 to 2000. Based on the level of economic activity that would have occurred in the absence of the program, net revenues from CRP land if returned to agricultural production in the six study areas were estimated at $50.2 million annually or $37 per acre of land currently enrolled in the CRP. Recreational (hunting) revenues as a result of the CRP in the study areas were estimated at $12.8 million annually or $9.45 per CRP-acre. The net economic effect of the CRP (lost agricultural revenues and gains in recreational expenditures) indicated that several areas of the state are not as economically burdened by the CRP as previous research has suggested. In addition, the net economic effects of the program would appear more favourable if revenues from all CRP-based recreation were included. The degree that recreational revenues offset agricultural losses might be further enhanced by enterprises that capitalize on the economic opportunities associated with expanded recreational activities on CRP lands.     

Investigating biodiversity trajectories using scenarios – Lessons from two contrasting agricultural landscapes

Agriculture is the major land use at a global scale. In addition to food production, multifunctionality of landscapes, including values and ecosystem services like biodiversity, recreation and culture, is now focus for management. This study explores how a scenario approach, involving different stakeholders, may help to improve landscape management for biodiversity conservation. Local farmers and executives at the County Administrative Board were invited to discuss rural development and conditions for farmland biodiversity in two Swedish landscapes. The potential biodiversity for three future land use scenarios for the two landscapes was discussed: nature conservation, outdoor recreation and energy production, and compared with current and historical landscapes in each region.Analyses of habitat areas, connectedness and landscape diversity suggested that the energy and recreation scenarios had a negative impact on farmland biodiversity, whereas the nature conservation scenario, the current and historically reconstructed landscapes had a higher potential for biodiversity. The farmers appreciated the nature conservation scenario, but also the energy production scenario and they highlighted the need of increased subsidies for management of biodiversity. The farmers in the high production area were less interested in nature quality per se. The executives had similar opinions as the farmers, but disagreed on the advantages with energy production, as this would be in conflict with the high biodiversity and recreational values. The local physical and socio-economical conditions differ between landscapes and potentially shaped the stakeholders emotional attachment to the local environment, their opinions and decisions on how to manage the land. We stress the importance of incorporating local knowledge, visions and regional prerequisites for different land uses in conservation, since site and landscape specific planning for biodiversity together with a flexible subsidy system are necessary to reach the conservation goals within EU.     

Fast Track Land Reform Programme,tenure security and investments in soil conservation: Micro‐evidence from Mazowe District in Zimbabwe

The government of Zimbabwe launched the Fast Track Land Reform Programme (FTLRP) in 2000 as part of its ongoing land reform and resettlement programme which aims to address a racially skewed land distribution. Its goal has been to accelerate both land acquisition and redistribution, targeting at least five million hectares of land for resettlement. This paper investigates the impact of the FTLRP on its beneficiaries' perceptions of land tenure security, and how these subsequently impacted soil conservation investments. Evidence suggests that the programme created some tenure insecurity, which adversely affected soil conservation investments among its beneficiaries. We find support for the contention that households make land‐related investments to enhance security of tenure. The results underscore the need for the government of Zimbabwe to clarify and formalize land tenure arrangements within the programme.     

First application of automated land evaluation in iran

A computerized land evaluation was employed for a speedy land evaluation to locate a new industrial-urban development site in Iran under a multiple-land-use setting. A special-purpose programming language of modeling was generated to facilitate computer application. In doing so, some types of models were initially tested. Finally, an optimization model was decided on for this purpose, because it provided the best result. Four optimization models using linear programming were developed for evaluating the study area (south of Isfahan) involving agriculture, soil conservation, outdoor recreation, and industrial-urban development. Then, the models were combined to produce a multiple-use optimization model (MOM) for land-use classification and planning of the area. In applying the MOM model, a computerized map was produced to indicate the optimum capability of the area for industrial-urban development, agriculture, soil conservation, and outdoor recreation. The employed methodology provided a quick and meaningful result for the study area, which has a low biological productivity.     

Environmental Planning, Biodiversity and the Development Process: The Case of Hong Kong''s Chinese White Dolphins

Hong Kong has enjoyed more than 20 years of almost uninterrupted economic growth and the territory is widely recognized as one of the most successful of the newly industrializing economies. Economic success has, however, brought with it a variety of environmental problems including deterioration of air and water bodies and the loss of terrestrial and marine habitats. Environmental degradation also poses a serious threat to local biodiversity. Despite its stated commitment to environmental protection, the Hong Kong Government is still strongly growth-oriented and the territory's environmental institutions and policies often seem ineffective in resolving the conflicts that arise between development and the environment. To illustrate some of the contradictions inherent in Hong Kong's current approach to environmental and conservation issues, this paper focuses on the controversy surrounding the fate of the local population of the Indo-Pacific humped-back dolphin, or, as it is locally known, the Chinese white dolphin (Sousa chinensis). The dolphin's habitat has been disrupted by major development projects, marine pollution and fishing and shipping activity. It is possible that the species will be extinct in Hong Kong waters by the beginning of the next century. The paper examines the background to the controversy that has arisen surrounding the future of the dolphins and evaluates the Government's attempts to develop a conservation strategy to protect them. The preferred option—the creation of a dolphin sanctuary within a designated marine park area—has been strongly criticized by some local marine biologists and conservationists as being inadequate and inappropriate. The failure to address effectively the problems faced by the Chinese white dolphin may be attributed to the lack of an overall conservation strategy in Hong Kong, shortcomings in the territory's environmental impact assessment system and limited local scientific knowledge concerning the dolphin population.     

Proliferation of nonconforming land uses in agricultural envelope of urban Hong Kong

Until the late 1960s rural Hong Kong had an attractive rustic landscape and a small but active farming population. The recent widespread agricultural decline provided opportunities for urban-oriented activities to invade, mainly as open storage and workshops unsuitable in city areas. Rapid container-port expansion and cross-border China trade generate demands for cheap and accessible land for non-conforming uses (NCU). Rural development control and land-use planning are inherently weak, and formal provision for such uses is lacking. An unfavorable landmark court judgement allows landowners to degrade the countryside. The activities have caused acute environmental problems, telescoped into a small territory, including visual blight, pollution, drainage blockage, loss of wetland habitats, and increased flooding hazard. The distinction between urban and rural has been blurred in the destruction of the valuable countryside heritage. An interim legislative amendment fails to stop unauthorized conversion of farmland. In the long term, an integrated and comprehensive rural planning strategy to conserve inherent elements, as well as accommodating selected urban spillover in properly located and serviced sites, is needed.     

Recreational benefits of residual open space: A case study of four communities in northeastern New Jersey

Numerous undeveloped and ecologically diverse tracts of land within urban communities in the United States are presently being utilized for a variety of unsupervised recreational activities. The present use and perceived value of residual open spaces adjacent to the Palisades to residents of four communities in northeastern New Jersey was assessed. The results of our survey suggest that parks and open space represent a city service that is not as highly valued as other more visible services, that respondents desire a diversity of recreational experiences, that existing parks and open space provide a narrow range of recreational benefits to users, that benefits of existing parks extend primarily to the provision of active pursuits, and that undeveloped residual open spaces are valued for and provide opportunities for a variety of passive pursuits.Residual open spaces are a resource that contributes towards meeting the aesthetic and recreational needs of city residents. Failure by planners and decision-makers to recognize the value and utility of such tracts of land may result in their destruction and in the loss of a resource which provides a range of recreational opportunities that is not adequately provided by formal parks and open spaces.Paper of the Journal Series, New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, Cook College, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey.This work was performed as a part of NJAES Project No. 17501, Urban Forestry: Planning and Management of Residual Open Space, supported by the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station and by a grant from the Consortium for Environmental Forestry Studies sponsored by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeast Forest Experiment Station.     

Attitudes towards the conservation of biological diversity—A case study in Kristianstad Municipality,Sweden

Human actions towards land, freshwater and oceans have already caused biodiversity to decline. This study aims to investigate attitudes towards the conservation of biological biodiversity among different groups in a Swedish city, Kristianstad. An inquiry including statements measuring attitudes towards the conservation of habitats, animals and plants, to the biological diversity within selected local areas, to global and national areas, and to societal issues, was replied to by 271 persons. Deciduous forests, birds and wild flowers were given highest priority. An area categorized as wetland including lakeshore meadows with a rich bird life was prioritized as most important for conservation while a forest area was chosen as best for recreation. The experts gave lower priority to arable land, urban parks, domestic animals, agricultural and garden plants and to conifer forests compared to the other groups. Knowledge about what people in general value as important could facilitate the future planning of nature areas in the city of Kristianstad.     

WATER QUALITY PERCEPTION BY USERS: CAN IT SUPPLEMENT OBJECTIVE WATER QUALITY MEASURES?1

ABSTRACT: Personal interviews were conducted with eighty campers in each of three Minnesota state parks to investigate the water quality perception of the recreationist. At the same time, water quality factors were measured or observed as an indication of conditions experienced by the interviewees. Most respondents perceived water pollution strictly on a visual basis. Sewage, public carelessness, industry, and farm fertilizers were “first choice selections” among major causes of water pollution in Minnesota. Seventy percent felt their recreational activities did not contribute to water pollution. Sixty-two percent said their life had not been affected by water pollution, while over two-thirds of the remaining thirty-eight percent listed curtailment of recreation as the primary result. Many mentioned an algal bloom at one park and the strong odor of rotten fish at a second park. On the basis of the senior author's observations, supported by the measurements taken, it was concluded that thèk were the only major problems in the three parks. Some incipient problems, such as nutrient enrichment and the presence of coliform bacteria, were indicated by the measurements. The type and degree of pollution identified by the recreationist could be important through its influence on user evaluations and space preferences. The establishment of relationships between water quality parameters and the perception of the recreationist will provide the manager with a tool to assist in evaluating participation in water-related outdoor recreation in terms of both user satisfaction and water quality.     

Applying the Kuhn–Tucker model to estimate the value of recreational ecosystem services in Sicily

This paper applies the Kuhn–Tucker model to estimate recreation demand of parks in Sicily. We estimate a fixed coefficient specification and a random coefficient specification to take into account heterogeneity across visitors. Estimates suggest a diversity of preferences across the population and that parks with higher level of quality attributes are more likely to be visited. We also simulate two sets of hypothetical policy scenarios to evaluate and compare the recreational value of each park and the welfare impacts of changes in a quality attribute.     

A Comparison of On-site Hunters,Sportsmen and the General Public about Recreational Rates and Future Land Use Preferences for the Savannah River Site

Management of ecosystems has been improved both by our understanding of how ecosystems function, as well as by what people consider to be suitable future land uses. This is particularly true with contaminated lands where decisions must be made about clean-up and future land use. In this paper I synthesize several surveys of public recreational rates and preferences for future land use of the Savannah River Site (SRS), a Department of Energy (DoE) facility located in South Carolina. Four groups of people were interviewed: on-site hunters; sportsmen; local residents attending an event near Aiken, South Carolina; and the general public attending a festival in Columbia, South Carolina. The general public that engaged in recreational activities averaged 20 days/ year or more for hunting and fishing, while sportsmen averaged over 50 days/year. All four groups rated maintaining SRS as a National Environmental Research Park (NERP) and using it for recreation as the highest preferred land uses. The general public rated hiking and camping higher than hunting and fishing, while sportsmen rated hunting higher than hiking and camping. All groups rated using SRS for homes as the lowest, or second lowest, preferred land use. There was disagreement on the ratings for industrial development, with people living closer to the site rating it higher than the general South Carolina population. These data can be used by local planners and managers in decision making regarding clean-up levels and future land use. The relative unanimity of views for cleaning up DoE sites, continued use of the site as a NERP and increased recreational use suggests that different groups of people share similar preferences for future use of SRS, and provides a useful paradigm for considering future land use decisions at other DoE sites nationwide. The relatively low ranking for housing and factories suggests that clean-up levels could be geared to future land use, such as recreation, which are less stringent than residential levels.     

郊野公园作为城市自然保留地的价值分析

城市自然保留地（urban natural reserved area）是指城市地区范围内具有一定面积的自然或近自然区域,具有保持生物多样性、乡土物种保护和保存复杂基因库等重要的生态功能。郊野公园作为城市自然保留地的重要组成,在生态、游憩、乡土植物、研究教育等方面具有重要的价值。本文分析了郊野公园在这些方面的价值,并介绍了香港的郊野公园建设,最后对郊野公园的建设提出了建议。     

Coherence between marine and land use planning: public attitudes to landscapes in the context of siting a wind park along the Latvian coast of the Baltic Sea

The aim of this paper is to contribute to coherence in marine, coastal and land use planning and management from the perspective of landscape values. At a time when new sea uses are emerging and marine spatial planning laws and regulations are being adopted, but have not yet been put into practice, research studies are required that provide spatial planners with informed insights concerning public stakeholder attitudes to controversial policies. The undertaken research explored the attitudes of two important social groups (local residents and tourists/recreational users) regarding locating wind parks in the marine and/or terrestrial environment along the Latvian coast of the Baltic Sea. The results of the study indicate that both groups support land-based wind park development versus offshore. Moreover, the visibility of wind turbines influences the willingness of tourists to visit recreation sites and impacts directly on their duration of stay. Research findings indicate that policy makers and spatial planners from both marine and land domains should adopt a broader and more integrated approach when setting priorities and allocating space for development activities where both domains are involved.