Modeling soil organic matter dynamics as affected by soil water erosion

Soil organic carbon (SOC) stock is an important component of the global carbon (C) cycle, which has the potential to influence global climate. In this paper we presented an overview of soil organic matter (SOM) models in the context of soil erosion and discussed basic processes driving erosion-induced SOC loss. Although the mechanism of this loss is poorly understood, erosion influences SOC in two ways: redistribution of C within the watershed or ecosystem, and loss of C to the atmosphere. Erosion disperses soil, altering its microbiological activity as well as water, air and nutrient regimes. This, along with sediment enrichment, has an impact on greenhouse gas emission from soil. For most of agricultural settings, field studies suggest that cultivation along with soil erosion are the primary reasons for SOC loss. Tracing the fate of eroded C is a challenging task. Modeling is the approach taken most often. In this paper we discuss approaches used in various SOC models to assess erosion-induced C loss from soil in agricultural ecosystems. An example with Century model applied to meadow and corn-soybean rotation under chisel-till demonstrated the model's ability to respond well to different erosion scenarios. It was estimated that at soil loss rate of 10 t ha(-1) year(-1) (value often considered a threshold for maintaining productivity) 19% of the total SOC loss would be attributed to erosion after 90 years of cultivation.     

Soil management practices for sustainable agro-ecosystems

A doubling of the global food demand projected for the next 50 years poses a huge challenge for the sustainability of both food production and global and local environments. Today’s agricultural technologies may be increasing productivity to meet world food demand, but they may also be threatening agricultural ecosystems. For the global environment, agricultural systems provide both sources and sinks of greenhouse gases (GHGs), which include carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), and nitrous oxide (N₂O). This paper addresses the importance of soil organic carbon (SOC) for agro-ecosystems and GHG uptake and emission in agriculture, especially SOC changes associated with soil management. Soil management strategies have great potential to contribute to carbon sequestration, since the carbon sink capacity of the world’s agricultural and degraded soil is 50–66% of the historic carbon loss of 42–72 Pg (1 Pg=10¹⁵ g), although the actual carbon storage in cultivated soil may be smaller if climate changes lead to increasing mineralization. The importance of SOC in agricultural soil is, however, not controversial, as SOC helps to sustain soil fertility and conserve soil and water quality, and organic carbon compounds play a variety of roles in the nutrient, water, and biological cycles. No-tillage practices, cover crop management, and manure application are recommended to enhance SOC storage and to contribute to sustainable food production, which also improves soil quality. SOC sequestration could be increased at the expense of increasing the amount of non-CO₂ GHG emissions; however, soil testing, synchronized fertilization techniques, and optimum water control for flooding paddy fields, among other things, can reduce these emissions. Since increasing SOC may also be able to mitigate some local environmental problems, it will be necessary to have integrated soil management practices that are compatible with increasing SOM management and controlling soil residual nutrients. Cover crops would be a critical tool for sustainable soil management because they can scavenge soil residual nitrogen and their ecological functions can be utilized to establish an optimal nitrogen cycle. In addition to developing soil management strategies for sustainable agro-ecosystems, some political and social approaches will be needed, based on a common understanding that soil and agro-ecosystems are essential for a sustainable society.     

Ecosystem carbon budgeting and soil carbon sequestration in reclaimed mine soil

Global warming risks from emissions of green house gases (GHGs) by anthropogenic activities, and possible mitigation strategies of terrestrial carbon (C) sequestration have increased the need for the identification of ecosystems with high C sink capacity. Depleted soil organic C (SOC) pools of reclaimed mine soil (RMS) ecosystems can be restored through conversion to an appropriate land use and adoption of recommended management practices (RMPs). The objectives of this paper are to (1) synthesize available information on carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from coal mining and combustion activities, (2) understand mechanisms of SOC sequestration and its protection, (3) identify factors affecting C sequestration potential in RMSs, (4) review available methods for the estimation of ecosystem C budget (ECB), and (5) identify knowledge gaps to enhance C sink capacity of RMS ecosystems and prioritize research issues. The drastic perturbations of soil by mining activities can accentuate CO2 emission through mineralization, erosion, leaching, changes in soil moisture and temperature regimes, and reduction in biomass returned to the soil. The reclamation of drastically disturbed soils leads to improvement in soil quality and development of soil pedogenic processes accruing the benefit of SOC sequestration and additional income from trading SOC credits. The SOC sequestration potential in RMS depends on amount of biomass production and return to soil, and mechanisms of C protection. The rate of SOC sequestration ranges from 0.1 to 3.1 Mg ha(-1) yr(-1) and 0.7 to 4 Mg ha(-1) yr(-1) in grass and forest RMS ecosystem, respectively. Proper land restoration alone could off-set 16 Tg CO2 in the U.S. annually. However, the factors affecting C sequestration and protection in RMS leading to increase in microbial activity, nutrient availability, soil aggregation, C build up, and soil profile development must be better understood in order to formulate guidelines for development of an holistic approach to sustainable management of these ecosystems. The ECBs of RMS ecosystems are not well understood. An ecosystem method of evaluating ECB of RMS ecosystems is proposed.     

World crop residues production and implications of its use as a biofuel

Reducing and off-setting anthropogenic emissions of CO(2) and other greenhouse gases (GHGs) are important strategies of mitigating the greenhouse effect. Thus, the need for developing carbon (C) neutral and renewable sources of energy is more than ever before. Use of crop residue as a possible source of feedstock for bioenergy production must be critically and objectively assessed because of its positive impact on soil C sequestration, soil quality maintenance and ecosystem functions. The amount of crop residue produced in the US is estimated at 367x10(6) Mg/year for 9 cereal crops, 450x10(6) Mg/year for 14 cereals and legumes, and 488x10(6) Mg/year for 21 crops. The amount of crop residue produced in the world is estimated at 2802x10(6) Mg/year for cereal crops, 3107x10(6) Mg/year for 17 cereals and legumes, and 3758x10(6) Mg/year for 27 food crops. The fuel value of the total annual residue produced is estimated at 1.5x10(15) kcal, about 1 billion barrels (bbl) of diesel equivalent, or about 8 quads for the US; and 11.3x10(15) kcal, about 7.5 billion bbl of diesel or 60 quads for the world. However, even a partial removal (30-40%) of crop residue from land can exacerbate soil erosion hazard, deplete the SOC pool, accentuate emission of CO(2) and other GHGs from soil to the atmosphere, and exacerbate the risks of global climate change. Therefore, establishing bioenergy plantations of site-specific species with potential of producing 10-15 Mg biomass/year is an option that needs to be considered. This option will require 40-60 million hectares of land in the US and about 250 million hectares worldwide to establish bioenergy plantations.     

川中丘陵紫色土区农田土壤有机碳储量及空间分布特征

土壤有机碳在陆地生态系统碳循环中起着举足轻重的作用。针对农田区域内典型县域尺度有机碳储量及其空间格局特征的研究,可以为区域农田土壤固碳提供参考,为研究我国土壤有机碳储量提供基础数据支持。基于2012年农田土壤有机碳分析调查数据,结合GIS和GPS技术对川中丘陵区盐亭县土壤有机碳密度和储量及空间格局进行了估算和分析。结果表明:其主要土壤类型的0~20 cm耕层土壤有机碳密度为111~426 kg/m2,平均值为266 kg/m2,水田和旱地耕层土壤有机碳密度分别为345和234 kg/m2,均低于全国平均值;全县20 cm深度土壤有机碳总储量250×109 kg C,紫色土类土壤有机碳储量最大,为153×109kg C,水稻土次之,有机碳储量0.93×109kg C,两者占据了农田土壤有机碳储量约98%,冲积土和黄壤土类由于面积小,有机碳储量也最低。各土壤类型有机碳储量丰度指数(RI)值都较低,碳存储能力处于中下水平。在县域农田尺度,有机碳空间格局与气候差异、植被类型关系不大,土壤类型空间差异和地形差异是有机碳空间格局形成的主要原因。     

Evaluation of carbon stock variation in Northern Italian soils over the last 70 years

Carbon (C) sequestration in soils is gaining increasing acceptance as a means of reducing net carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions to the atmosphere. Numerous studies on the global carbon budget suggest that terrestrial ecosystems in the mid-latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere act as a large carbon sink of atmospheric CO₂. However, most of the soils of North America, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Eastern Europe lost a great part of their organic carbon pool on conversion from natural to agricultural ecosystems during the explosion of pioneer agriculture, and in Western Europe the adoption of modern agriculture after the Second World War led to a drastic reduction in soil organic carbon content. The depletion of organic matter is often indicated as one of the main effects on soil, and the storage of organic carbon in the soil is a means of improve the quality of soils and mitigating the effects of greenhouse gas emission. The soil organic carbon in an area of Northern Italy over the last 70 years has been assessed In this study. The variation of top soil organic carbon (SOC) ranged from −60.3 to +6.7%; the average reduction of SOC, caused by agriculture intensification, was 39.3%. This process was not uniform, but related to trends in land use and agriculture change. For the area studied (1,394 km²) there was an estimated release of 5 Tg CO₂-C to the atmosphere from the upper 30 cm of soil in the period 1935–1990.     

Biogeochemical C and N cycles in urban soils

The percentage of urban population is projected to increase drastically. In 2030, 50.7 to 86.7% of the total population in Africa and Northern America may live in urban areas, respectively. The effects of the attendant increases in urban land uses on biogeochemical C and N cycles are, however, largely unknown. Biogeochemical cycles in urban ecosystems are altered directly and indirectly by human activities. Direct effects include changes in the biological, chemical and physical soil properties and processes in urban soils. Indirect effects of urban environments on biogeochemical cycles may be attributed to the introductions of exotic plant and animal species and atmospheric deposition of pollutants. Urbanization may also affect the regional and global atmospheric climate by the urban heat island and pollution island effect. On the other hand, urban soils have the potential to store large amounts of soil organic carbon (SOC) and, thus, contribute to mitigating increases in atmospheric CO(2) concentrations. However, the amount of SOC stored in urban soils is highly variable in space and time, and depends among others on soil parent material and land use. The SOC pool in 0.3-m depth may range between 16 and 232 Mg ha(-1), and between 15 and 285 Mg ha(-1) in 1-m depth. Thus, depending on the soil replaced or disturbed, urban soils may have higher or lower SOC pools, but very little is known. This review provides an overview of the biogeochemical cycling of C and N in urban soils, with a focus on the effects of urban land use and management on soil organic matter (SOM). In view of the increase in atmospheric CO(2) and reactive N concentrations as a result of urbanization, urban land use planning must also include strategies to sequester C in soil, and also enhance the N sink in urban soils and vegetation. This will strengthen soil ecological functions such as retention of nutrients, hazardous compounds and water, and also improve urban ecosystem services by promoting soil fertility.     

Global estimates of soil carbon sequestration via livestock waste: a STELLA simulation

It has become increasingly well documented that human activities are enhancing the greenhouse effect and altering the global climate. Identifying strategies to mitigate atmospheric carbon dioxide emissions on the national level are therefore critical. Fossil fuel combustion is primarily responsible for the perturbation of the global carbon cycle, although the influence of humans extends far beyond the combustion of fossil fuels. Changes in land use arising from human activities contribute substantially to atmospheric carbon dioxide; however, land use changes can act as a carbon dioxide sink as well. A soil carbon model was built using STELLA to explore how soil organic carbon sequestration (SOC) varies over a range of values for key parameters and to estimate the amount of global soil carbon sequestration from livestock waste. To obtain soil carbon sequestration estimates, model simulations occurred for 11 different livestock types and with data for eight regions around the world. The model predicted that between 1980 and 1995, United States soils were responsible for the sequestration of 444–602 Tg C from livestock waste. Model simulations further predicted that during the same period, global soil carbon sequestration from livestock waste was 2,810–4,218 Tg C. Our estimates for global SOC sequestration are modest in proportion to other terrestrial carbon sinks (i.e. forest regrowth); however, livestock waste does represent a potential for long-term soil carbon gain. SOC generated from livestock waste is another example of how human activities and land use changes are altering soil processes around the world. Readers should send their comments on this paper to: BhaskarNath@aol.com within 3 months of publication of this issue.     

Soil organic carbon dynamics of croplands in European Russia: estimates from the “model of humus balance”

The Model of Humus Balance was used to estimate the influence of climate effects and changing agricultural practices on carbon (C) levels in soddy–podzolic soils in the Russian Federation for the years 2000–2050. The model was linked with a spatial database containing soil, climate and farming management layers for identification of spatial change of C sequestration potential. Analysis of relationships between C, soil texture and climate indicated that compared with a business-as-usual scenario, adaptation measures could increase the number of polygons storing soil organic carbon (SOC) by 2010–2020. The rate of possible C loss is sensitive to the different climate scenarios, with a maximum potential for SOC accumulation expected in 2030–2040, thereafter decreasing to 2050. The effect is most pronounced for the arid part of the study area under the emission scenario with the highest rate of increase in atmospheric CO₂ concentration, supporting findings from the dynamic SOC model, RothC. C sequestration during the study period was permanent for clay and clay loam soils with a C content of more than 2%, suggesting that C sequestration should be focused on highly fertile, fine-textured soils. We also show that spatial heterogeneity of soil texture can be a source of uncertainty for estimates of SOC dynamics at the regional scale. Figures in color are available at     

The Potential of Soil Carbon Sequestration Through Improved Management Practices in Norway

The study was conducted to assess the potential of Norwegian agricultural ecosystems to sequester carbon (C) based on the data from some long-term agronomic and land use experiments. The total emission of CO₂ in Norway in 1998 was 41.4 million metric ton (MMT), of which agriculture contributed only 0.157 MMT, or <0.4% of the total emissions. With regards to methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) gases, however, agricultural activities contributed 32.5% and 51.3% of their respective emissions in Norway. The soil organic carbon (SOC) losses associated with accelerated soil erosion in Norway are estimated at 0.475 MMTC yr^–1. Land use changes and soil/crop management practices with potential for SOC sequestration include conservation tillage methods, judicious use of fertilizers and manures, use of crop residues, diverse crop rotations, and erosion control measures. The potential for SOC sequestration is 0.146 MMTC yr^–1 for adopting conservation tillage, 0.011–0.035 MMTC yr^–1 for crop residue management, 0.026 MMTC yr^–1 for judicious use of mineral fertilizer, 0.016–0.135 MMTC yr^–1 for manure application, and 0.036 MMTC yr^–1 for adopting crop rotations. The overall potential of these practices for SOC sequestration ranges from 0.591 to 1.022 MMTC yr^–1 with an average value of 0.806 MMTC yr^–1. Of the total potential, 59% is due to adoption of erosion control measures, 5.8% to restoration of peat lands, 21% to conversion to conservation tillage and residue management, and 14% to adoption of improved cropping systems. Enhancing SOC sequestration and improving soil quality, through adoption of judicious land use and improved system of soil and crop management, are prudent strategies for sustainable management of soil, water and environment resources.Readers should send their comments on this paper to: bhaskarn ath@aol.com within 3 months of publication of this issue.     

三峡库区林地土壤有机碳含量特征及效应

对三峡库区典型林分林地土壤有机碳（SOC）含量特征及对土壤物理性质、土壤结构和土壤养分效应进行研究，以期为三峡库区生态环境建设提供依据。结果表明：SOC含量表现为表层（A层）土壤（12.06～45.18 g/kg）明显大于下层土壤，大一个数量级。从土壤表层到底层，SOC含量呈明显下降趋势。由相同立地条件的灌木林改造而来的农地土壤（改造年限8 a）各层土壤SOC含量都有所降低，土壤表层SOC含量降低了10%，土壤平均有机碳含量降到为灌木林地的66%。三峡库区SOC含量与土壤物理性质直接相关，SOC含量与土壤容重和土壤毛管孔隙度存在最为明显的线性关系〖WTBX〗（R2=0.83，0.83，n=19，p<0.01）。土壤有机碳直接参与了土团聚体的形成，SOC含量与土壤团聚度和土壤团聚状况均有较好的相关关系（R2=0.62,0.76，n=19，p<0.01）。各林地土壤中氮元素含量最高，速效氮含量约为速效磷的6倍，为速效钾的2.5倍。SOC与土壤主要营养元素（N，P，K）关系中，对N元素作用最明显，特别是速效氮〖WTBX〗（R2=0.66,n=19，p<0.01），对磷的矿化起主要作用，与钾元素关系不明显。土壤有机碳是决定N和P矿化的主导因子，从土壤表层到底层C/N比值呈下降趋势，C/P值约为C/N值的6倍。阳离子交换量（CEC）与土壤团聚度之间有明显的相关关系〖WTBX〗(R2=0.49,n=19，p<0.01〖WTBZ〗)。SOC对CEC的作用主要通过改变土壤结构而实现。     

Soil carbon dynamics in a Mediterranean forest during the Kyoto Protocol commitment periods

The purpose of the present work is to asses the possibility of detecting changes in soil organic carbon (SOC) at the end of the 5-years of the first Commitment Period (CP) of the Kyoto Protocol of the United Nation’s Framework Convention on Climate Change (1 January, 2008–31 December, 2012), by both direct measurement and the use of an opportunely evaluated SOC model, CENTURY. The investigated soil is young, developed since 28 years on virtually C-free spoil banks and under the influence of two managed forest stands, one a mix of English oak (Quercus robur L.) and Italian alder (Alnus cordata Loisel.) and the other pure English oak. The SOC stock of either stand was monitored since the time the stands were planted in 1981, and it was used together with other parameters for the model evaluation, while the future projections for the end of the first (2012) and second (2017) CP were made according to two extreme IPCC climatic scenarios: A1F1, the most dramatic, and B2, among the less impacting. Direct SOC measurements performed at the beginning and at the end of a time frame equivalent to a commitment period (2004–2008) had not shown significant variations in either stands. Compared to the 2008 SOC stock, in both stands the model shows variations at the end of the first CP from 0.7 to 1.8 Mg C ha⁻¹ for the A1F1 scenario and from 0.3 to 1.7 Mg C ha⁻¹ for the B2. These variations are within the standard deviations of the C stocks measured in 2008. On the contrary, at the end of the second CP, the modelled SOC increments range from 2.5 to 3.6 Mg C ha⁻¹ (A1F1) or from 1.9 to 3.4 Mg C ha⁻¹ (B2), indicating the possibility to detect the SOC changes by direct measurement, since the values well agree with the minimum detectable variation estimated for both sites in 3.3–4.5 Mg C ha⁻¹. This work shows that SOC stock changes measured directly in the field can be minimal at the end of both CPs, and that CENTURY well simulates the SOC dynamics of the stands. The use of such a model, validated at long-term experimental sites, hence represents an effective tool for estimating future changes in SOC amounts in support of direct measurements when a short period of time, such as the CP, is considered.     

Characteristics of Carbon Storage and Density in Different Layers of Forest Ecosystems

Characteristics of carbon storage and density in different layers of forest ecosystems should be studied comprehensively and in more detail. Using forest inventory data in combination with field survey data, we explored the characteristics of carbon storage and density in different layers of forest ecosystems in Liaoning Province of China. Results showed that total carbon storage was 813.034 Tg C. The carbon storage of soil layer accounted for 81.0% of the total storage with 658.783 Tg C, followed by those of arbor, litter and shrub layers with 128.403 Tg C (15.8%), 22.723 Tg C (2.8%) and 3.125 Tg C (0.4%), respectively. The average carbon density for the forest ecosystems were 183.571 Mg C ha^–1, with soil layer (148.744 Mg C ha^–1) being the highest one, followed by arbor layer (28.992 Mg C ha^–1), litter layer (5.131 Mg C ha^–1) and shrub-grass layer (0.706 Mg C ha^–1). Carbon storage in different forest ecosystems varied from 1.595 to 319.161 Tg C, while C density ranged from 165.067 to 235.947Mg C ha^–1, with the highest and lowest values being observed in soil layer and shrub-grass layers, respectively, implying that soil is the main body of forest carbon storage. Young-aged forests accounted for a greater proportion of forests in the Province than forests in other age classes; and proper management of forests could increase the carbon sequestration in the forest ecosystems. The comparison with previous estimations of carbon storage for forest ecosystem implied that methods and data used for forest carbon storage estimation affected the results of estimates obviously.     

Carbon Budget Proposal： An Institutional Framework for an Equitable and Sustainable World Climate Regime

Consensus on reducing greenhouse gas emissions has been reached at the technical and political level.However,as the issue involves economic costs and the right to develop,the international institutional framework for addressing greenhouse gas emissions has consistently failed to balance the demands of impartiality and sustainability.However,a sustainable carbon budget proposal is undoubtedly achievable if the global carbon budget (the total amount of carbon permitted by climate security) is made an absolute constraint.If a preliminary distribution was made among the world’s population on a per capita basis,the total limited global carbon budget could not only meet basic needs but also ensure the proposal’s equitable.Taking into account historical emission levels and future needs,we should carry out carbon budget transfer payments and devise a corresponding funding mechanism to ensure efficient allocation under the proposal.Unlike the phase-by-phase progress and provisional goals of the Kyoto Protocol,the carbon budget proposal outlined above is a comprehensive and holistic package.Due to the politicization of the climate change issue,however,many technical issues can only be worked out through international political and diplomatic negotiations.     

上海土壤有机碳储量及其空间分布特征

区域土壤碳库的估算不仅是陆地土壤碳循环研究的重要内容，同时也可为国家尺度的土壤碳库的估算提供更多的数据支持。利用上海第二次土壤普查资料，结合GIS技术对上海土壤有机碳储量、碳密度及其空间分布格局展开研究，结果表明，上海地区0～100 cm深度的土壤有机碳总储量为576×107 t，占全国的0.062 6%，0～100 cm的平均土壤有机碳密度为1055 kg/m2，高于全国平均值，反映出上海土壤具有较高的碳蓄积能力。各类土壤中，水稻土的土壤碳储量最大，其次是灰潮土和滨海盐土，而黄棕壤由于面积狭小，所以土壤碳储量最小。各类土壤0～100 cm土壤有机碳密度的大小顺序依次为水稻土>灰潮土>黄棕壤>滨海盐土。从空间分布格局来看，上海土壤碳密度呈现为西高东低，在局部范围内还表现出高低相间，错综复杂的局面，这种分布规律在一定程度上体现了地形、微地貌、母质、土地利用方式等因素的影响。而快速的城市化引起的土地利用变化造成了土壤碳库的净碳损失量为39244万t，相当于2000年化石燃料产生的碳排放的9.86%，这表明在经济和城市快速发展地区，土地利用变化已经成为影响土壤碳库的重要驱动力。     

基于CA Markov的土壤有机碳储量空间格局重建研究——以泛长三角地区为例

选取了泛长三角地区的高程、坡度、坡向、GDP、人口、温度、降雨量、河流距离、城市距离和海岸线距离10个驱动因子作为土地利用变化驱动力，基于这些驱动力因子，利用Logistic分析制作土地适宜性图集；运用CA Markov模型模拟得到2000年、1995年、1990年、1985年、1980年、1975年6期的土地利用格局；采用全数检测的方法对模拟结果进行精度检验；在此基础上，得到了泛长三角地区土壤有机碳储量，进而重建历史土壤有机碳储量空间格局。研究结果表明：（1）模型模拟精度为8873%，说明CA Markov模型对历史土地利用模拟具有一定可行性；（2）泛长三角地区历史土壤有机碳储量从今往前逐期递增，且明显高于2010年土壤有机碳储量水平，1995、1990、1985、1980、1975年土壤有机碳储量分别为3235 1、3241 9、3247 6、3251 8、3255 3；（3）各时期泛长三角地区土壤有机碳储量空间格局呈现出南高北低的趋势，土地利用类型与土壤有机碳储量密切相关，城市建成区有机碳储量低于其他区域，土壤有机碳储量增加区域主要出现在其高值区周边；（4）耕地与林地面积的增加，建设用地面积减少，导致了1995~1975年间有机碳储量的增加。基于CA Markov模型可以有效重建历史土壤有机碳储量的空间格局     

Estimation of the impact of oil palm plantation establishment on greenhouse gas balance

Estimates of emissions indicate that if tropical grassland is rehabilitated by oil palm plantations, carbon fixation in plantation biomass and soil organic matter not only neutralises emissions caused by grassland conversion, but also results in the net removal of about 135 Mg carbon dioxide per hectare from the atmosphere. In contrast, the emission from forest conversion clearly exceeds the potential carbon fixation of oil palm plantings. Forest conversion on mineral soils to promote continued oil palm mono cropping causes a net release of approximately 650 Mg carbon dioxide equivalents per hectare, while the emission from peat forest conversion is even higher due to the decomposition of drained peat and the resulting emission of carbon oxide and nitrous oxide. The conversion of one hectare of forest on peat releases over 1,300 Mg carbon dioxide equivalents during the first 25-year cycle of oil palm growth. Depending on the peat depth, continuous decomposition augments the emission with each additional cycle at a magnitude of 800 Mg carbon dioxide equivalents per hectare. The creation of ‘flexibility mechanisms’ such as the clean development mechanism and emission trading in the Kyoto Protocol could incorporate plantations as carbon sinks in the effort to meet emission targets. Thus, for the oil palm industry, grassland rehabilitation is an option to preserve natural forest, avoid emissions and, if the sequestered carbon becomes tradable, an opportunity to generate additional revenue. Readers should send their comments on this paper to BhaskarNath@aol.com within 3 months of publication of this issue.     

上海城市样带土壤有机碳空间变异性研究

为揭示城市化、工业化等人为活动对土壤有机碳的影响，选择能反映上海城郊乡梯度差异的城市样带，采用地统计学方法对表层土壤样品土壤有机碳的空间变异结构和分布格局进行了分析。结果表明：城市表层土壤有机碳含量均属中等变异，徐汇区土壤有机碳含量呈正态分布，奉贤区、闵行区和所研究样带土壤有机碳含量呈对数正态分布。半方差函数模型拟合结果显示徐汇和闵行区土壤有机碳符合指数模型，奉贤和所研究样带土壤有机碳符合球状模型。通过泛克里格插值得到城市表层土壤有机碳含量空间分布图，发现徐汇、闵行区土壤有机碳呈岛状，奉贤区呈条带状，而所研究样带呈条带和岛状分布相结合的特点。土壤有机碳含量城郊乡梯度差异明显，工业化、城市化、肥料投入与管理等人为因素对城市土壤有机碳空间分布密切相关     

基于InVEST模型的秦岭山地土壤流失及土壤保持生态效益评价

为了解秦岭山地土壤侵蚀及土壤保持生态服务功能的空间分布特征，采用InVEST 土壤保持模型，从研究区、流域、县域3个尺度，对其潜在与实际土壤侵蚀量进行计算，在此基础上进一步应用该模型量化研究区土壤保持生态服务价值，得到土壤保持服务价值空间分布图。研究结果表明：（1）2012年秦岭山地潜在与实际土壤侵蚀量分别为4588×108 t、152×108 t，五大流域和各县区以轻度侵蚀和中度侵蚀为主，较为严重的地区为汉江流域南部紫阳县6323 t/(hm2[DK]·a)[JP2]和岚皋县5869 t/(hm2[DK]·a)，属强烈侵蚀。（2）全区土壤保持总量4337×108 t，[JP]其中泥沙持留量143×108 t，单位面积土壤保持量为71979 t/(hm2[DK]·a)；减少泥沙疏浚工程和水质治理花费的土壤保持服务价值共计4184亿元。各县区土壤保持服务价值量在001亿元至475亿元不等，价值量在096~191亿元之间的县区占全区的4413%，其次为191~285亿元（2522%）。（3）对于秦岭山地土壤侵蚀的防治及其生态效益的建设，保证林地面积的绝对优势是首要条件；对于大于25°的坡耕地，应继续推行还林还草政策     

湖南省碳源与碳汇变化的时序分析

在全球气候变暖的背景下，减少温室气体排放、发展低碳经济成为各地区在发展中的普遍共识。以湖南省为研究区域，以1995~2008年为研究时序，从能源消费、主要工业产品生产工艺过程、土地利用变化与牲畜管理、固体废弃物处理与废水处理和排放4个方面综合分析了碳源与碳汇的变化情况。研究表明:1995~2008年，湖南省温室气体排放总量约在220亿t（2000年）至399亿t（2008年）CO2当量之间，14 a间增长了6118%，年均增长374%；碳汇总量约在1754亿t（1995年）至2537亿t（2007年）CO2当量之间，14 a间增长了3607%，年均增长约240%；能源消费与农业部门是湖南省温室气体的主要来源，林地是湖南省碳汇的主要来源；综合碳源与碳汇变化的均衡结果，1995~2008年湖南省呈碳汇盈余状态，净碳汇在2001~2007年持续增加，14 a间增长了31.94%，年均增长2.15%