Comparison of organochlorine compound concentrations in colostrum and mature milk

Human breast milk represents the best choice for the nutrition of infants. It is often used for monitoring human exposures to environmental chemicals. Uniquely suited to meet human biological needs, breast milk composition, especially fat content, changes significantly with time from delivery. With the aim to compare the concentration of organochlorine compounds (OCs) in colostrum versus mature milk, we obtained samples of fourth-fifth day postpartum milk (colostrum) and day-14 postpartum milk (mature milk) from 12 women enrolled in the project "Early Childhood Development and PCB Exposure in Slovakia". The concentrations of selected organochlorine pesticides and congeners of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were measured using gas chromatography with electron capture detection and reported on lipid adjusted basis. No significant differences were found between organochlorine levels in colostrum and those in mature milk samples. A very close correlation was found between the concentrations of organochlorine compounds in colostrum and mature milk (Spearman correlation coefficient r=0.94-0.98 for PCBs, and r=0.85-0.99 for organochlorine pesticides, p<0.001 for all compounds). The present study concludes that the use of colostrum samples provides a close estimate of the child's exposure to OCs in the early neonatal period and demonstrates that, despite the lower fat content, colostrum specimens are adequate to conduct OC analyses.     

Organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls in Korean human milk: Contamination levels and infant risk assessment

The levels of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) were determined in 50 samples of Korean human milk. POPs include organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) [aldrin, chlordanes, dieldrin, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes (DDTs), endrins, heptachlors, hexachlorobenzene (HCB), hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs), mirex, and toxaphenes] and marker PCBs (PCB28, PCB52, PCB101, PCB138, PCB153 and PCB180). In all samples, p,p′-DDE were determined as 75.5–1115.3 ng/g fat. The compounds β-HCH and p,p’-DDT were detected at 72% and 60% of the samples, respectively. Chlordanes (nd–84.9 ng/g fat) heptachlors (nd–40.1 ng/g fat), HCB (nd–42.9 ng/g fat) and PCBs (nd–38.3 ng/g fat) were detected in several samples. The ratio of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethylene (DDE)/DDT was 6.8, which explained that exposure of volunteers to DDT did not occur recently. Compared with the previous monitoring data, the level of marker PCBs generally decreased in the milk samples. The levels of OCPs are significantly correlated to the residential periods of the mothers but not with their dietary habits. Considering the daily intake of each OCPs, 18% of infants would ingest the amount of heptachlor exceeding the acceptable daily intake (ADI) proposed by World Health Organization (WHO). There was no sample surpassing the WHO ADI for DDTs, HCB and chlordanes.     

Persistent organochlorine pesticides in internal organs of coypu,Myocastor coypus

A highly selective and sensitive method based on gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) to identify and quantify persistent organochlorine pesticides, (18 compounds including primary compounds and metabolites), in animal internal organs (kidneys, liver, and brain) has been developed. Tandem mass spectrometric conditions were individually optimized for each target compound in Multiple Reaction Monitoring (MRM) mode to obtain maximum sensitivity. Prior to instrumental analysis, a sample preparation method based on matrix solid phase dispersion (MSPD) followed by acidic digestion with sulfuric acid to reduce matrix co-extractives was employed. Analyses of real samples were carried out on coypus (Myocastor coypus) from the autumn slaughter of 19 animals. In the analyzed samples, three of the target compounds, namely DDE-pp′ (DDT metabolite), HCB and lindane, were detected. Their concentration levels fell in the ranges of 0.003–0.007, 0.003–0.025, and 0.003–0.021 mg kg^?1 (0.005, 0.010, and 0.010 mg kg^?1 on average) in the case of DDE-pp′, HCB and lindane, respectively. Although low quantities of organochlorine pesticides do not pose an immediate danger to consumers' health, they should be of public health concern considering long-term, low-dose exposure.     

Organochlorine pesticide distribution in an organic production system for cow's milk in Chiapas,Mexico

The objective of this study was to evaluate the presence of organochlorine pesticides in samples of forage, soil, water, and milk in four units of an organic production system for cow´s milk (samples of forage, milk, soil, and water) in Tecpatan, Chiapas, Mexico. The organochlorine pesticides were extracted from forage, soil and water based on the USEPA (2005) guideline and from milk based on the IDF 1991 guideline. The pesticides were identified and quantified by gas chromatography with electron capture detector (CG-ECD). In general, the highest average concentration of total pesticides was found in the samples of milk and forage (311 ± 328 and 116.5 ±77 ng g^?1 respectively). Although, the production systems analyzed are organic, organochlorine pesticides were detected in all environmental samples (forage, soil, water, and organic milk). Although no values surpassed the defined limits of Mexican and International regulation it is advisable that a monitoring program of contaminants in these production systems is continued.     

Levels of organochlorine pesticides residues in dairy products in Kumasi, Ghana

Determination of six organochlorine pesticides, lindane, aldrin, dieldrin, endosulfan, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE), residues were carried out on three dairy products sampled from six communities in the Kumasi metropolis in Ghana. Cheese samples were collected from three communities, (Tafo, Asawasi, and Aboabo), yoghurt samples from K-Poly and Ayeduasi while yoghurt and milk samples were collected from KNUST. Concentrations of DDT and DDE were, respectively, 42.17+/-6.00 microg kg(-1) and 31.50+/-3.44 microg kg(-1) in cheese sampled from Asawasi. Cheese samples from Tafo had an average DDT concentration of 298.57+/-28.02 microg kg(-1) while DDE concentration was 140.15+/-56.77 microg kg(-1). The highest average concentration of DDT in all the samples was 149.07 microg kg(-1) detected in cheese samples from Aboabo. Levels of DDT and its metabolite, DDE, in cheese from all the three sampling sites (Aboabo, Asawasi and Tafo) were well below the levels recommended by World Health Organisation (WHO). Mean concentration of DDT in fresh milk samples from KNUST was 12.53+/-1.61 microg kg(-1). As bioaccumulation of these residues is likely to pose problems in higher organisms, like human beings, there is the need for effective monitoring of these residues in the environment. This work, thus, seeks to provide information on levels of pesticide residues in dairy products that will assist in a scientific assessment of the impact of pesticides on public health, agriculture and the environment in Ghana.     

National survey of the levels of persistent organochlorine pesticides in the breast milk of mothers in China

The occurrence of persistent organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in breast milk samples collected from mothers from twelve provinces in mainland China was investigated. Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes (DDTs) were the most prevalent agent, followed by HCHs and HCB, whereas levels of chlordane compounds, drins and mirex were lower. The relatively lower DDE/DDT ratio in the Fujian rural area suggested more recent exposure to DDT than in other areas. The mean level of DDTs in breast milk from the southern China was higher than those from northern China (p < 0.05). A positive correlation was observed between concentration of DDTs in human milk and consumption of animal-origin food, suggesting that this parameter could play an important part in influencing OCPs burdens in lactating women. The mean estimated daily intakes of different OCPs for breastfed infants were lower than the tolerable daily intake.     

The estimation of consumer health risk associated with organochlorine xenobiotics in hard smoked cheese in Poland

The aim of this study was to estimate the health risks associated with consumption of smoked cheeses, which are popular in Poland. The analysis covered polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) indicator congeners (ndl-PCBs: PCB 28, PCB 52, PCB 101, PCB 138, PCB 153, PCB 180), dioxin-like PCBs (dl-PCBs): non-ortho (PCB 77, PCB 81, PCB 126, PCB 169) and mono-ortho (PCB 105, PCB 114, PCB 118, PCB 156, PCB 157), as well as organochlorine pesticides (OCPs: αHCH, βHCH, γHCH, heptachlor, aldrin, heptachlor epoxid isomer B, dieldrin, pp'DDE op′DDD, pp′DDT, pp′DDD, op′DDT, endrin). The pesticide residues detected in the examined cheese were below the maximum residues levels. The estimated daily intake [lifetime average daily dose (LADD)] referring to the sum of the compounds varied within 4.21·10^?7–3.92·10^?6 mg·kg^?1·day^?1 and was significantly lower than the tolerable daily intake/acceptable daily intake (TDI/ADI) for individual compounds. The health hazard quotient, being the exact measure of the magnitude of exposure potential or a quantifiable potential for developing non-carcinogenic health effects after an averaged exposure period, was also very low, ranging from 2.87·10^?6 to 5.32·10^?5. The obtained results confirmed that the intake of rennet cheese does not pose any consumer health risk in Poland.     

Residue levels of organochlorine pesticides in cattle meat and organs slaughtered in selected towns in West Shoa Zone,Ethiopia

Residue levels of organochlorine pesticides (OCP) in a total of 90 cattle samples comprising meat, liver and kidney collected from carcasses slaughtered in six towns in West Shoa Zone, Ethiopia, (Ambo, Guder, Ginchi, Gedo, Holeta and Tikur Inchini), have been determined. The pesticides were extracted by solid phase extraction (SPE) and quantification was carried out using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). A good linearity (r² > 0.998) was found in the range 0.001–7.00 mg/kg for the samples studied. Most of the pesticides had recoveries in the range 81–99% and values of relative standard deviation (RSD) <7.2% for repeatability and reproducibility, showing good accuracy and precision of the method. The concentration level of the studied organochlorines followed the order: p, p’ dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT) > endosulfan>o,p′-DDT >lindane>dieldrin>endrin>aldrin>chlorothanolin while the order of contamination in the analyzed organs was liver > kidney > meat. Heat treatment of the meat, kidney and liver samples (boiling for 90 min.) produced an overall reduction of 62.2%, 44.5%, 37.7%, 29%, 31%, 34.3% and 30.8% in lindane, o, p′-DDT, endosulfan, p, p′-DDT, chlorothanolin, aldrin, dieldrin, and endrin, respectively. Although the residual contents of the organochlorines detected in all the contaminated samples analyzed from the six cities were below the respective maximal permissible levels set by international organizations, samples from Holeta town were more contaminated and may necessitate effective monitoring as bioaccumulation of these residues may pose health problems in human beings.     

Organochlorine compounds in bovine milk from the state of Mato Grosso do Sul – Brazil

Organochlorines are highly hydrophobic, synthetic organic pollutants that accumulate in the environment and in food webs. The primary route of human exposure to organochlorines is through food-mainly fat-rich food of animal origin such as meat, fish, and dairy products. Here we determined the presence and concentration of organochlorine residues in pasteurized milk from Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil, to monitor consumer exposure to these contaminants. Organochlorine pesticides in milk samples were analyzed using solid phase extraction in octadecyl silica-prepacked columns and identified by gas chromatography using an electron capture detector. Of the 100 composite samples analyzed, more than 90% contained residues of organochlorine pesticides: aldrin was present in 44% of the samples, followed by ∑DDT (36%), mirex (34%), endosulfan (32%), chlordane (17%), dicofol (14%), heptachlor (11%) and dieldrin (11%). Compared to the values established by law, the concentration of the compounds in some samples was above the reference values. Given the importance that milk and its products have in the human diet, it is essential to know whether the levels of pesticide residues are kept well below the recommended levels to minimize the risk to human health.     

Accumulation pattern of persistent organochlorine pesticides in liver tissues of various species of birds from India

As part of a large study on assessing the impact of environmental contaminants in Indian avifauna, the presence of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in liver tissues of 16 species of birds collected from Ahmedabad, India during 2005–2007 was quantified. The higher concentrations of total organochlorine pesticides were detected in livers of shikra Accipiter badius (3.43?±?0.99 μg/g wet wt) and the lower levels in white ibis Pseudibis papillosa (0.02?±?0.01 μg/g wet wt). Marked differences in the concentrations of total OCPs occurred among species (p?<?0.05). Concentrations of DDT and its metabolites, hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) and isomers, dieldrin, and heptachlor epoxide were lower than the concentrations reported for various species of birds in India. Accumulation pattern of organochlorine pesticides in birds was, in general, in the order HCH > DDT > heptachlor epoxide > dieldrin. Among various pesticides analyzed, p,p′-DDE and β-HCH contributed maximum towards the total OCPs and study indicates the continuous use of lindane and DDT for agriculture and public health purpose, respectively. Although no serious threat is posed by any of the organochlorine pesticides detected in the present study species, continued monitoring is recommended.     

Exposure to specific polychlorinated biphenyls and some chlorinated pesticides via breast milk in Poland

The aim of our study was to obtain the data on the exposure of breast-fed infants to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and selected organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in the Wielkopolska province (Poland). The levels of indicator PCBs, and selected OCPs, including two DDT metabolites (HCB, p,p'-DDT, p,p'-DDD, p,p'-DDE and alpha,beta,gamma-HCH) were determined in 27 human milk samples, collected in 2000-2001, according to WHO protocol. Estimated daily intakes (EDIs) of all analytes were calculated. Our results were compared with those obtained by an analysis of human milk samples from other European and non-European countries, collected in the same period time. We have stated that median exposure of Wielkopolska first breast-fed infants to OCPs is comparable (EDI(HCB) = 0.086 microg/kgbw/day; EDI(beta-HCH)=0.063 microg/kgbw/day) or higher (EDI(p,p'-DDE) = 3.495 microg/kgbw/day) than in other European countries, while exposure to PCBs (EDI(Sigma7PCB) = 0.364 microg/kgbw/day) is situated at the low end of the intake of these xenobiotics by breast-fed infants from different regions of Europe.     

Specific accumulation of organochlorines in human breast milk from Indonesia: levels, distribution, accumulation kinetics and infant health risk

This study determined concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine compound (OC) pesticides in the milk samples of women from the general population in four locations of Indonesia. The most prevalent residues of OCs were DDTs, PCBs and hexachlorocyclohexane isomers (HCHs), whereas other OCs such as chlordane compounds (CHLs), tris(4-chlorophenyl)methane and hexachlorobenzene were lower. The levels of OCs varied between locations and individuals, with DDTs higher in suburban and rural areas than urban localities, may be due to the differences in food habits and sources between the individuals and locations. Data from Purwakarta site indicated continuing DDT exposure, which may confirm recent usage of DDT in Indonesia. A positive correlation was observed between concentration of OCs in human milk and age of mothers, primiparas women having higher OCs than multiparas, suggesting these parameters play an important role influencing the OC burdens in lactating women. Some individuals accumulated DDTs and HCHs in breast milk close to or even higher than the TDI (tolerable daily intake) guidelines proposed by Health Canada.     

Levels of organochlorine pesticides in Amazon turtle (Podocnemis unifilis) in the Xingu River,Brazil

Abstract

Due to the toxicity and high environmental persistence of organochlorine pesticides in aquatic organisms, turtles have been studied as environment biomonitors. These animals are important sources of protein for the riverside and indigenous peoples of the Brazilian amazon. In the present study, organochlorine pesticide contamination was investigated in Podocnemis unifilis. Liver, muscle and fatty tissue samples were removed from 50 specimens collected from five sampling points located in the Xingu River basin. Fourteen organochlorine pesticides were analysed via gas chromatography with an electron capture detector (CG-ECD). Eight organochlorine pesticides were detected with average concentrations of ∑DDT, ∑Endossulfan and ∑HCH which were 26.17?±?26.35, 14.38?±?23.77 and 1.39?±?8.46?ng g^?1 in moisture content, respectively. DDT compounds were the most predominant, with a greater concentration of pp′-DDT in the liver and pp′-DDD in the muscle. Significant differences were noted between the types of tissues studied, and the concentration of OCPs varied between sampling sites.     

Occurrence of aflatoxin M1 in human milk samples in Vojvodina,Serbia: Estimation of average daily intake by babies

The objectives of the study were to determine the aflatoxin M1 content in human milk samples in Vojvodina, Serbia, and to assess the risk of infants' exposure to aflatoxins food contamination. The growth of Aspergillus flavus and production of aflatoxin B1 in corn samples resulted in higher concentrations of AFM1 in milk and dairy products in 2013, indicating higher concentrations of AFM1 in human milk samples in 2013 and 2014 in Serbia. A total number of 60 samples of human milk (colostrum and breast milk collected 4–8 months after delivery) were analyzed for the presence of AFM1 using the Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay method. The estimated daily intake of AFM1 through breastfeeding was calculated for the colostrum samples using an average intake of 60 mL/kg body weight (b.w.)/day on the third day of lactation. All breast milk collected 4–8 months after delivery and 36.4% of colostrum samples were contaminated with AFM1. The greatest percentage of contaminated colostrum (85%) and all samples of breast milk collected 4–8 months after delivery had AFM1 concentration above maximum allowable concentration according to the Regulation on health safety of dietetic products. The mean daily intake of AFM1 in colostrum was 2.65 ng/kg bw/day. Results of our study indicate the high risk of infants' exposure, who are at the early stage of development and vulnerable to toxic contaminants.     

Organochlorine and organophosphorus pesticide residues in the Atoya river basin, Chinandega, Nicaragua

The hydrographic basin of the Atoya river, located in the Department of Chinandega, one of the main cotton producing regions in Nicaragua, is intensively contaminated by pesticides. Samples of river waters and sediments, as well as strategically selected wells have been analyzed to study variations in the concentrations of organochlorine and organophosphorus pesticide residues between the dry season (November-April) and the rainy season (May-June). Generally, higher concentrations of pesticides have been detected in the river waters and sediments in the dry season. DDT, DDD, DDE compounds and toxaphene are the most frequent organochlorine residues found in the water and sediment samples, while endrin, aldrin, dieldrin and lindane are mainly found in the waters of rivers and wells. Organophosphorus compounds were rarely detected. However, residues of ethion, methyl-parathion and ethyl-parathion were found in high concentrations in some river and well water samples. Generally, organochlorine compounds tend to accumulate in the fine grain-size fractions, rich in organic matter, except DDE, which concentrates basically in the coarse grain-size fractions.     

Relationship between two consecutive lactations and fat level in persistent organochlorine compound concentrations in human breast milk

An attempt was made to understand how consecutive deliveries and the following lactations have an impact on the organochlorine compound levels detected in human milk. The other goal of the study was to check for a possible dependence between fat content and the levels of the studied compounds in milk samples from the same lactations. 199 milk samples were examined for the presence of p,p'-DDT, p,p'-DDE, p,p'-DDD, alpha-, beta-, gamma-HCH and sigmaPCBs. Moreover, in 87 milk samples the fat content was additionally determined. This study has indicated that, for the mother with a shorter interval between lactations, mean concentrations of the examined compounds were higher in the milk of the first lactation than that of the second. For the other donor whose second lactation began after 2 years, the mean levels of HCB, beta-HCH, p,p'-DDD, and PCBs in her milk were higher during the first lactation. At the same time, the concentrations of p,p'-DDT and p,p'-DDE after the second delivery were slightly higher. The correlation coefficients between the two data sets (fat content in milk, concentrations of the compounds studied in milk) showed no interrelationship between them.     

Temporal changes in some chlorinated hydrocarbon residue levels of Canadian breast milk and infant exposure

Between 1967 and 1986, five national surveys were carried out to determine organochlorine residues in Canadian breast milk. In these surveys the number of samples, their geographic sampling distribution and fat content changed over the years. In addition, the number of samples obtained from younger mothers decreased, while those from older mothers (31-40 years) increased. Total DDTs showed the most consistent decline of all declining residues, while PCBs only decreased after 1982. Levels of oxychlordane and trans-nonachlor remained constant. Ratios of p,p'-DDE/p,p'-DDT gradually increased from 3.1 to 10.0 over the same period of time. With few exceptions, regional trends in residue levels followed those observed for the whole country. Although the number of reported chemicals increased since 1967, this was not necessarily reflected in the total accumulated residues in breast milk. By 1986, the daily intakes of all compounds at 8 weeks of nursing were well below the established acceptable daily intakes.     

Polychlorobiphenyls and organochlorine pesticides in conventional and organic brands of milk: occurrence and dietary intake in the population of the Canary Islands (Spain)

The population of the Spanish archipelago of the Canary Islands has been studied in depth regarding its levels of contamination by organochlorine pesticides (OCs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Foodstuffs of animal origin, such as milk, are prominent contributors to the body burden of these contaminants. As this population presents one of the highest milk-intake in Spain and Europe, we evaluated the level of OCs and PCBs in 26 commercially available brands of milk (16 conventional and 10 organic brands) present in the market of these Islands, in order to estimate the relevance of milk as a source of these chemicals for the Canary population. Our findings showed that hexachlorobenzene, trans-chlordane, and PCB153 were present in almost all the samples with independence of the type of milk. For both types of milks, the concentration of OCs was very low, showing organic milks lower levels than conventional ones. As a consequence, the estimated daily intake for OCs was lower than the tolerable daily intake (TDI) established by International Agencies. The levels of PCBs in milk were also found to be very low, but, in this case, the situation was the opposite: there were higher levels of PCBs in organic than in conventional brands of milk. Unexpectedly, levels of dioxin-like PCBs (DL-PCBs) reached values higher than 25 pg WHO-TEQ g⁻¹ fat in percentile 75 for both types of milk indicating the existence of a number of brands of milk highly contaminated by these toxicants. Consequently, the population who consume the most contaminated milk brands could have estimated daily intakes well above the recommended TDI (2 pg WHO-TEQ kg⁻¹ b.w. d⁻¹) established by European Union Authorities. These results are of concern if we consider the well known adverse health effects exerted by dioxin-like compounds.     

From mother to child: investigation of prenatal and postnatal exposure to persistent bioaccumulating toxicants using breast milk and placenta biomonitoring

The exposure levels of placenta and paired breast milk samples to selected organochlorine compounds and pesticides from Danish and Finnish samples have been investigated. p,p'-DDE is the dominant pollutant, beta-HCH, hexachlorobenzene, endosulfan-I, dieldrin, oxychlordane, cis-heptachlor epoxide and p,p'-DDT being the other major constituents. Their concentrations are linearly correlated between milk and placenta in similar patterns for Danish and Finnish samples. Milk samples have higher levels of these pollutants than placenta on lipid base. However, the apparently not correlated compounds, such as alpha-HCH, pentachlorobenzene, pentachloroanisole and methoxychlor, are generally accumulated more in placenta, which may suggest a tissue specific metabolic activity. Thus, depending on the compound of interest, biomonitoring may be done in placenta only or in both matrices.     

Agricultural soil as a potential source of input of organochlorine pesticides into a nearby pond

A study was conducted in the southeastern region of Buenos Aires province, Argentina, to assess an agricultural soil as a potential source of organochlorine (OC) pesticides for the aquatic biota of a nearby pond. We analyzed gamma-HCH (lindane), still in use, and the following banned compounds: DDT, DDE, DDD heptachlor, heptachlor epoxide, aldrin, dieldrin and endrin in soil, bulrush, grass shrimp and fish using gas chromatography with electron capture detection (GC-ECD). Among the OC pesticides, lindane was most dominant in the soil (32.6 ng/g dry wt in the upper and 173.9 ng/g dry wt in the lower horizon) and bulrush (1.9 pg/g lipid). Macrophyte also accumulated high levels of heptachlor epoxide (1.5 pg/g lipid). Heptachlor, although present in the soil, was below the detection limit in all aquatic biota studied. Its primary degradation product, heptachlor epoxide, was found in both soil and biota samples. DDT was found at low levels in the surface soil (6.8 ng/g dry wt), but at higher concentrations in fish (3.6 pg/g lipid), although levels were still below permissible levels for human consumption. Since most of the compounds were found in both soil and aquatic biota, our study suggests that agricultural soil could be an important source for OC pesticides in the nearby pond.