Effect-Directed Analysis of Key Toxicants in European River Basins. A Review (9 pp)

Background, Aim and Scope Extensive monitoring programs on chemical contamination are run in many European river basins. With respect to the implementation of the European Union (EU) Water Framework Directive (WFD), these programs are increasingly accompanied by monitoring the ecological status of the river basins. Assuming an impact of chemical contamination on the ecological status, the assignment of effects in aquatic ecosystems to those stressors that cause the effects is a prerequisite for taking political or technical measures to achieve the goals of the WFD. Thus, one focus of present European research is on toxicant identification in European river basins in order to allow for a reduction of toxic pressure on aquatic ecosystems according to the WFD. Main Features: An overview is presented on studies that were performed to link chemical pollution in European river basins to measurable ecotoxic effects. This includes correlation-based approaches as well as investigations that apply effect-directed analysis (EDA) integrating toxicity testing, fractionation and non-target chemical analysis. Effect-based key toxicants that were identified in European surface waters are compiled and compared to EU priority pollutants. Further needs for research are identified. Results: Studies on the identification of effect-based key toxicants focused on mutagenicity, aryl hydrocarbon receptor-mediated effects, endocrine disruption, green algae, and invertebrates. The identified pollutants include priority pollutants and other well-known environmental pollutants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, furans, and biphenyls, nonylphenol, some pesticides and tributyltin, but also other compounds that were neither considered as environmental pollutants before nor regulated such as substituted phenols, natural or synthetic estrogens and androgens, dinaphthofurans, 2-(2-naphthalenyl)benzothiophene, and N-phenyl-2-naphthylamine. Discussion: Individual studies at specific sites in a European river basin demonstrated the power of combined biological and chemical analytical approaches and, particularly, of effect-directed analysis. However, the available information on effect-based key toxicants is very limited with respect to the entirety of rivers possibly at risk due to chemical contamination and with respect to toxicological endpoints considered at a specific site. A relatively broad basis of information exists only for estrogenicity and aryl hydrocarbon, receptor-mediated effects. Conclusions: The development of tools and strategies for an identification of key toxicants on a broader scale are a challenging task for the next years. Since investigations dealing with toxicant identification are too labor and cost-intensive for monitoring purposes, they have to be focused on the key sites in a river basin. These should include hot spots of contamination, particularly if there is evidence that they might pose a risk for downstream areas, but may also involve accumulation zones in the lower reach of a river in order to get an integrated picture on the contamination of the basin. Perspectives: While EDA is almost exclusively based on measurable effects in in vitro and in vivo biotests to date, an increasing focus in the future should be on the integration of EDA into Ecological Risk Assessment and on the development of tools to confirm EDA-determined key toxicants as stressors in populations, communities and ecosystems. Considering these requirements and applied in a focused way, toxicant identification may significantly help to implement the Water Framework Directive by providing evidence on the main stressors and possible mitigation measures in order to improve the ecological status of a river ecosystem.     

Deriving environmental quality standards in European surface waters: when are there too few data?

Recent technical guidance has been published by the European Commission that outlines methodologies for the derivation of Environmental Quality Standards (EQS) in European surface waters under the Water Framework Directive (WFD). The guidance allows the derivation of a long-term EQS from a small dataset. Specifically an EQS can be derived from just three acute data points, although the safety factors built into such an EQS are large (e.g. up to a factor of 1,000). Large safety factors make such EQS uncertain, and often difficult to achieve in practice. We examine dataset requirements for the derivation of EQS and specifically the minimum number of tests needed for setting EQS for long-term chemical exposures that result in reduced relative uncertainty, as assessed simply through the reduction in standard deviation of the means of the values derived. Using ecotoxicity datasets for four example chemicals, for which EQS have been derived in many jurisdictions, we show that variation in the EQS is greatest when using the minimum dataset allowable under the WFD guidance, but decreases rapidly when seven or more datapoints are available. Increasing the minimum number of ecotoxicity data in deriving an EQS results in a greater understanding of ecotoxicological effects. With this knowledge, the mitigating effects of water chemistry can be accounted for in deriving an EQS, even with relatively limited datasets. The new guidance suggests “simplistic” approaches to account for chemical availability, but does not detail how this might be undertaken. We provide examples of ways by which water chemistry effects can be included in deriving implementable EQS for metals with relatively few reliable and relevant data.     

Site-specific water quality guidelines: 1. Derivation approaches based on physicochemical, ecotoxicological and ecological data

Generic water quality guidelines (WQGs) are developed by countries/regions as broad scale tools to assist with the protection of aquatic ecosystems from the impacts of toxicants. However, since generic WQGs cannot adequately account for the many environmental factors that may affect toxicity at a particular site, site-specific WQGs are often needed, especially for high environmental value ecosystems. The Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality provide comprehensive guidance on methods for refining or deriving WQGs for site-specific purposes. This paper describes three such methods for deriving site-specific WQGs, namely: (1) using local reference water quality data, (2) using biological effects data from laboratory-based toxicity testing, and (3) using biological effects data from field surveys. Two case studies related to the assessment of impacts arising from mining operations in northern Australia are used to illustrate the application of these methods. Finally, the potential of several emerging methods designed to assess thresholds of ecological change from field data for deriving site-specific WQGs is discussed. Ideally, multiple lines of evidence approaches, integrating both laboratory and field data, are recommended for deriving site-specific WQGs.     

The Water Framework Directive: stakeholder preferences and catchment management strategies--are they reconcilable?

The key objective of the European Water Framework Directive (WFD) is to promote sustainable water use by protecting water resources. Here, we investigate how the economic consequences of a set of water management regulations is received by a group of stakeholders in the R?nne? catchment. We explore three themes from an economic point of view: i) perceived causes of eutrophication, ii) preferences regarding water use, and iii) the extent to which the polluter-pays principle should be applied. There is a common understanding about the intentions in the WFD to enhance cost-effective water use. All stakeholder groups largely share a similar picture of the causes of water quality deterioration. However, there is not one cost-effective and fair solution. Several mixes of remedial measures within the same catchment are possible, depending on the scale of action. Despite potential economic gains from cooperation between sectors, the participants regard the individual polluter-pays principle as the most feasible mode of funding for remedial programs, supported by subsidies. There is little demand for more market institutions (emission fees, tradable emission permits). The stakeholders have a conservative view of water management, i.e. they accept the present combination of regulations and economic incentives, and they are fully aware of the complexity of the issue. In general, the WFD recommendations for the calculation of cost-effective abatement strategies seem to imply an underestimation of the value of external effects in the decision-making process.     

EU Water Framework Directive and Stockholm Convention Can we reach the targets for priority substances and persistent organic pollutants?

Background, aim and scope  

Water is a renewable resource and acceptable quality is important for human health, ecological and economic reasons, but human activity can cause great damage to the natural aquatic environment. Managing the water cycle in a sustainable way is the key to protect natural resources and human health. On a global level, the microbiological contamination of water sources is a major problem in connection with poverty and the United Nations Millennium Development Declaration is an important initiative to handle this problem. In terms of environmental health, persistent organic pollutants (POPs) circulate globally; as they travel long distances, they are found in remote areas far from their original source of application and can cause damage wherever they move to. On a global scale, United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) issued the Stockholm Convention to reduce POPs; in the European Union (EU), one intention of the Water Framework Directive (WFD) is to reach the good chemical status of waters; beside these regulations, there are other directives in support of these goals. The aim of this paper is to discuss whether the Stockholm Convention and the WFD allows meeting the targets of protection of human and environmental health, which are established in the different directives and how could we approach the targets.     

EU Water Framework Directive and Stockholm Convention

Background, aim and scope

Water is a renewable resource and acceptable quality is important for human health, ecological and economic reasons, but human activity can cause great damage to the natural aquatic environment. Managing the water cycle in a sustainable way is the key to protect natural resources and human health. On a global level, the microbiological contamination of water sources is a major problem in connection with poverty and the United Nations Millennium Development Declaration is an important initiative to handle this problem. In terms of environmental health, persistent organic pollutants (POPs) circulate globally; as they travel long distances, they are found in remote areas far from their original source of application and can cause damage wherever they move to. On a global scale, United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) issued the Stockholm Convention to reduce POPs; in the European Union (EU), one intention of the Water Framework Directive (WFD) is to reach the good chemical status of waters; beside these regulations, there are other directives in support of these goals. The aim of this paper is to discuss whether the Stockholm Convention and the WFD allows meeting the targets of protection of human and environmental health, which are established in the different directives and how could we approach the targets.

Materials and methods

The aims and scopes of different directives are compiled and compared with the actual quality of water, different approaches of standard settings are compared and potential treatment options are discussed.

Results

Under the Stockholm Convention on POPs, which came into force in May 2004, governments are required to develop a National Implementation Plan (NIP) setting out how they will address their obligations under the convention and how they will take measures to eliminate or reduce the release of POPs into the environment by the use of best available techniques (BAT) and application of best environmental practices (BEP). On a European level, the WFD has been in place as the main European legislation to protect our water resources and the water environment of Europe since 2000. It requires managing river basins so that the quality and quantity of water does not affect the ecological services of any specific water body. Nevertheless, the goals of other directives as for drinking water, bathing water and urban wastewater treatment are not yet harmonised mainly concerning microbiological, priority substances and priority hazardous substances (PS/PHS) contamination. Following the detection of substances, a risk assessment with sound effect data needs to be performed also for regulatory decisions and priorisation of measures to remove emerging contaminants. Beside personal care products and industrial contaminants, faecal pollution of recreational waters is one of the major hazards facing users, although microbial contamination from other sources as well as chemical and physical aspects also affects the suitability of water for recreation. As in arid and semiarid areas, wastewater is considered for irrigation with regulatory needs of hygienic and chemical parameters—health-based targets—to avoid the contamination of crops and food. In surface waters, currently, the relationships between physical and chemical properties and the biological state of surface waters were quite well-understood to enable the management of catchments and rivers to achieve ecological quality.

Discussion

Nevertheless, more work is needed to find out the actual impact of the regulations for single chemicals and complex mixtures, in terms of environmental quality standards to achieve a ‘good chemical status’, on the good biological status. In a next step after the adoption of the list of PS/PHS substances, which also includes the POPs, the Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive (UWWTD) needs to be adjusted and existing or new treatment options (BATs) should comply with the new requirements of the different directives.

Conclusions

Relevant substances threaten human health and the environment by new effects such as CMR, endocrine-disrupting effects or neurotoxicity which are not yet considered in an adequate way by assessment methods and regulatory standards and the application of abatement technologies. The Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals helps to control the sources, but WFD, the Stockholm Convention and UWWTD need to be harmonised and a rolling revision process should react on new developments. Finally, to answer the question if the Stockholm Convention and the WFD (2000/60/EC) could reach the target—I would state that they provide a very valuable frame to approach the targets, but there is still way to go to reach them on an EU level and on a global scale, also under the aspects of the Stockholm Convention and the Millennium Development Goals.

Perspectives

The compilation of the goals of different regulations and combined actions will save a lot of administrative efforts and money.

     

Stochastic analysis to assess the spatial distribution of groundwater nitrate concentrations in the Po catchment (Italy)

A large database including temporal trends of physical, ecological and socio-economic data was developed within the EUROCAT project. The aim was to estimate the nutrient fluxes for different socio-economic scenarios at catchment and coastal zone level of the Po catchment (Northern Italy) with reference to the Water Quality Objectives reported in the Water Framework Directive (WFD 2000/60/CE) and also in Italian legislation. Emission data derived from different sources at national, regional and local levels are referred to point and non-point sources. While non-point (diffuse) sources are simply integrated into the nutrient flux model, point sources are irregularly distributed. Intensive farming activity in the Po valley is one of the main Pressure factors Driving groundwater pollution in the catchment, therefore understanding the spatial variability of groundwater nitrate concentrations is a critical issue to be considered in developing a Water Quality Management Plan. In order to use the scattered point source data as input in our biogeochemical and transport models, it was necessary to predict their values and associated uncertainty at unsampled locations. This study reports the spatial distribution and uncertainty of groundwater nitrate concentration at a test site of the Po watershed using a probabilistic approach. Our approach was based on geostatistical sequential Gaussian simulation used to yield a series of stochastic images characterized by equally probable spatial distributions of the nitrate concentration across the area. Post-processing of many simulations allowed the mapping of contaminated and uncontaminated areas and provided a model for the uncertainty in the spatial distribution of nitrate concentrations.     

Land-use and agriculture in Denmark around year 1900 and the quest for EU Water Framework Directive reference conditions in coastal waters

The EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) aims to protect the ecological status of coastal waters. To establish acceptable boundaries between good and moderate ecological status, the WFD calls for reference conditions practically undisturbed by human impact. For Denmark, the nitrogen (N) concentrations present around year 1900 have been suggested to represent reference conditions. As the N load of coastal waters relates closely to runoff from land, any reduction in load links to agricultural activity. We challenge the current use of historical N balances to establish WFD reference conditions and initiate an alternative approach based on parish-level land-use statistics collected 1896/1900 and N concentrations in root zone percolates from experiments with year 1900-relevant management. This approach may be more widely applicable for landscapes with detailed historic information on agricultural activity. Using this approach, we find an average N concentration in root zone percolates that is close to that of current agriculture. Thus, considering Danish coastal waters to be practically unaffected by human activity around year 1900 remains futile as 75% of the land area was subject to agricultural activity with a substantial potential for N loss to the environment. It appears unlikely that the ecological state of coastal waters around year 1900 may serve as WFD reference condition.     

International river basin management under the EU water framework directive: an assessment of cooperation and water quality in the Baltic Sea Drainage Basin

We address issues connected with international river basin management and the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD). By creating a register of River Basin Districts established under the WFD, we show that the number and area of international River Basin Districts are significant. Further, we present an assessment of international cooperation and water quality in 14 international river basins in the Baltic Sea Drainage Basin. Our results indicate that the WFD is a push forward for international river basin management in the region. However the WFD in general, and the principle of river basin management in particular, may be hard to implement in river basins shared between EU Member States and countries outside the EU. According to the study, Vistula, Pregola, and Nemunas appear to be the international basins within the Baltic Sea Drainage Basin in greatest need of intensified cooperation with regard to the state of the water quality.     

MODELKEY. Models for assessing and forecasting the impact of environmental key pollutants on freshwater and marine ecosystems and biodiversity (5 pp)

BACKGROUND: Triggered by the requirement of Water Framework Directive for a good ecological status for European river systems till 2015 and by still existing lacks in tools for cause identification of insufficient ecological status MODELKEY (http:// www.modelkey.org), an Integrated Project with 26 partners from 14 European countries, was started in 2005. MODELKEY is the acronym for 'Models for assessing and forecasting the impact of environmental key pollutants on freshwater and marine ecosystems and biodiversity'. The project is funded by the European Commission within the Sixth Framework Programme. OBJECTIVES: MODELKEY comprises a multidisciplinary approach aiming at developing interlinked tools for an enhanced understanding of cause-effect-relationships between insufficient ecological status and environmental pollution as causative factor and for the assessment and forecasting of the risks of key pollutants on fresh water and marine ecosystems at a river basin and adjacent marine environment scale. New modelling tools for risk assessment including generic exposure assessment models, mechanistic models of toxic effects in simplified food chains, integrated diagnostic effect models based on community patterns, predictive component effect models applying artificial neural networks and GIS-based analysis of integrated risk indexes will be developed and linked to a user-friendly decision support system for the prioritisation of risks, contamination sources and contaminated sites. APPROACH: Modelling will be closely interlinked with extensive laboratory and field investigations. Early warning strategies on the basis of sub-lethal effects in vitro and in vivo are provided and combined with fractionation and analytical tools for effect-directed analysis of key toxicants. Integrated assessment of exposure and effects on biofilms, invertebrate and fish communities linking chemical analysis in water, sediment and biota with in vitro, in vivo and community level effect analysis is designed to provide data and conceptual understanding for risk arising from key toxicants in aquatic ecosystems and will be used for verification of various modelling approaches. CONCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVE: The developed tools will be verified in case studies representing European key areas including Mediterranean, Western and Central European river basins. An end-user-directed decision support system will be provided for cost-effective tool selection and appropriate risk and site prioritisation.     

Assessment of hydrochemical trends in the highly anthropised Guadalhorce River basin (southern Spain) in terms of compliance with the European groundwater directive for 2015

One of the key aspects introduced by the European Water Framework Directive 2000/60/EC (WFD) and developed by Groundwater Directive 2006/118/EC was the need to analyse pollution trends in groundwater bodies in order to meet the environmental objectives set in Article 4 WFD. According to this Directive, the main goal of “good status” should be achieved by the year 2015, and having reached this horizon, now is a suitable time to assess the changes that have taken place with the progressive implementation of the WFD. An extensive database is available for the Guadalhorce River basin, and this was used not only to identify in groundwater but also to draw real conclusions with respect to the degree of success in meeting the targets established for this main deadline (2015) The geographic and climate context of the Guadalhorce basin has facilitated the development of a variety of economic activities, but the one affecting the largest surface area is agriculture (which is practised on over 50 % of the river basin). The main environmental impacts identified in the basin aquifers arise from the widespread use of fertilisers and manures, together with the input of sewage from population centres. In consequence, some of the groundwater bodies located in the basin have historically had very high nitrate concentrations, often exceeding 200 mg/L. In addition, return flows, the use of fertilisers and other pressures promote the entry of other pollutants into the groundwater, as well as the salinisation of the main aquifers in the basin. In order to assess the hydrochemical changes that have taken place since the entry into force of the WFD, we performed a detailed trends analysis, based on data from the official sampling networks. In some cases, over 35 years of water quality data are available, but these statistics also present significant limitations, due to some deficiencies in the design or management; thus, data are missing for many years, the results are subject to seasonality effects, there are gaps in the historical records obtained by the monitoring networks and other shortcomings. The results obtained were analysed with the non-parametric Mann-Kendall test and revealed a general upward trend of pollutants in the areas affected by major pressures. In this analysis, we evaluated not only the increase or decrease in pollutants but also the different processes detected and the sources of pollution within the basin area. Our evaluation shows that robust measures should be taken in order to prevent further major degradation of groundwater quality and to enable “good quality” status to be achieved in future extensions of the WFD.     

Saving the Baltic Sea,the Inland Waters of Its Drainage Basin,or Both? Spatial Perspectives on Reducing P-Loads in Eastern Sweden

Nutrient loads from inland sources to the Baltic Sea and adjacent inland waters need to be reduced in order to prevent eutrophication and meet requirements of the European Water Framework Directive (WFD) and the Baltic Sea Action Plan (BSAP). We here investigate the spatial implications of using different possible criteria for reducing water-borne phosphorous (P) loads in the Northern Baltic Sea River Basin District (NBS-RBD) in Sweden. Results show that most catchments that have a high degree of internal eutrophication do not express high export of P from their outlets. Furthermore, due to lake retention, lake catchments with high P-loads per agricultural area (which is potentially of concern for the WFD) did not considerably contribute to the P-loading of the Baltic Sea. Spatially uniform water quality goals may, therefore, not be effective in NBS-RBD, emphasizing more generally the need for regional adaptation of WFD and BSAP-related goals.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s13280-014-0523-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Assessing reference conditions according to the European Water Framework Directive using modelling and analysis of historical data: an example from Randers Fjord,Denmark

The European Water Framework Directive (WFD) requires the definition of reference conditions, i.e. pristine conditions, for all surface waters. As the present state of Danish coastal waters cannot be referred to as pristine, reference conditions have to be assessed by analysis of historical data or by the use of models. Using Randers Fjord as an example, the aim of this work was i) to demonstrate possibilities and restrictions of assessing reference conditions by historical data and by modelling; and ii) to demonstrate how ecological conditions have changed along with eutrophication. The ample historical data from Randers Fjord allowed us to assess reference conditions with respect to benthic macrophytes and benthic fauna. Models of varying complexity enabled us to assess reference conditions for nutrients, chlorophyll a, Secchi depth, and eelgrass. We conclude that models can be a useful supplement to assess reference conditions, though they are presently restricted by the lack of quantitative links between eutrophication and species composition.     

Governance of Water Resources in the Phase of Change: A Case Study of the Implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive in Sweden

In this article, focusing on the ongoing implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive, we analyze some of the opportunities and challenges for a sustainable governance of water resources from an ecosystem management perspective. In the face of uncertainty and change, the ecosystem approach as a holistic and integrated management framework is increasingly recognized. The ongoing implementation of the Water Framework Directive (WFD) could be viewed as a reorganization phase in the process of change in institutional arrangements and ecosystems. In this case study from the Northern Baltic Sea River Basin District, Sweden, we focus in particular on data and information management from a multi-level governance perspective from the local stakeholder to the River Basin level. We apply a document analysis, hydrological mapping, and GIS models to analyze some of the institutional framework created for the implementation of the WFD. The study underlines the importance of institutional arrangements that can handle variability of local situations and trade-offs between solutions and priorities on different hierarchical levels.     

Overview of passive Chemcatcher sampling with SPE pretreatment suitable for the analysis of NPEOs and NPs

The European Union Water Framework Directive (WFD; 2000/60/EC) is an important piece of environmental legislation that protects rivers, lakes, coastal waters and groundwaters (EC 2000). The implementation of the WFD requires the establishment and use of novel and low-cost monitoring programmes, and several methods, e.g. passive sampling, have been developed to make the sampling process more representative compared to spot sampling. This review considers passive sampling methods focusing mainly on a passive sampler named Chemcatcher®, which has been used for monitoring several harmful compounds in aquatic environments. Also, the sample treatment and analysis of nonylphenol ethoxylates (NPEOs) and nonylphenol (NPs) from water using solid phase extraction (SPE) is briefly summarized. The procedure of Chemcatcher passive sampling is quite similar to that of the SPE extraction since it concentrates the studied compounds from water as well. After sampling, the accumulated substances are extracted from the receiving phase of the sampler. The concentrations of NPEOs and NPs are currently monitored by taking conventional spot samples; SPE can be successfully used as a pretreatment procedure. Chemcatcher® passive sampling technique is a simple and useful monitoring tool and can be applied to new chemicals, such as NPEOs and NPs in aquatic environments.     

Investigating phosphorus limitation in a fixed bed filter with phosphorus and nitrogen profile measurements

In 2000, the European Union adopted the European Water Framework Directive (WFD) (European Commission, 2000). The WFD focuses on increasingly stringent nutrient standards including ultra low nitrogen (< 2.2 mg N-total/L) and phosphorus concentrations (< 0.15 mg total phosphorus/L) in receiving surface waters and in relevant point sources like wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluent. Expansion of WWTPs with advanced post-treatment processes, like effluent filtration, is widely proposed to meet possible future effluent discharge standards. When combining biological nitrate-nitrogen and chemical phosphorus removal in one filter, phosphorus limitation in the denitrifying process may occur. This study investigated where in the filter bed and under which conditions phosphorus limitation occurs. Profile measurements for nitrate, nitrite, and orthophosphorus (PO4-P) combined with chemical oxygen demand (COD) and 02 were conducted. Results showed that the required PO4-P/NOx-N ratio is approximately 0.006 mg/mg after phosphorous precipitation and flocculation. Profile measurements have proven to be an applicable and useful tool. It showed how nitrate and orthophosphorus are removed through the filter bed based on the PO4-P/NOx-N ratio. When orthophosphorus is removed more rapidly and efficiently compared to nitrate, the PO4-P/NOx-N ratio decreases. When PO4-P/NOx-N ratio thresholds are approximately 0.006 mg/mg for a certain period of time and water temperatures varied significantly, orthophosphorus limitation may occur. Changing the filter-bed configuration or decreasing the coagulant dosage can prevent limitation of the denitrifying process because of a phosphorous shortage.     

Evaluation of biological integrity of a small urban stream system by investigating longitudinal variability of the fish assemblage

We investigated the integrity of fish assemblages of a small anthropogenically impacted urban stream system in south-western Germany. Heavy point and non-point pollution physiologically stresses the aquatic fauna while migration barriers and river morphological alterations negatively influence habitat availability. Investigations conducted in 1998 and 1999 revealed that the fish assemblage was altered and several site-specific fish species were missing while non-site-specific species were relatively common. Highest species diversity was recorded in a reach downstream of the main migration barrier, while upstream only a few species were present. In general, a shift to ubiquitous and limnophilic species as well as to less pollution sensitive species was observed. Adult fish dominated the population structure throughout the stream course. Recruitment was confined mainly to the less polluted headwater. In the present study we introduce an assessment system based on the similarity of the potential natural and the actually established fish assemblage as demanded by the Water Framework Directive of the European Union for the evaluation of the ecological status of a fish assemblage in a stream [EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of Europe establishing a framework for community action in the field of water policy. Brussels, 30 June, 2000. 1997/0067 (COD)]. Both, stream morphological quality and pollution data sampled within the two study years confirm the validity of the suggested assessment method.     

Towards integrated environmental assessment support for the European Community's environmental action programme process

This paper firstly discusses the strategy for integrated environmental assessment (IEA) at the European Environment Agency (EEA), addressing the principles, definition and scope, and summarising the state of the art. The IEA process is described within the framework of the DPSIR concept a chain of causal links going from Driving Forces, Pressures, States to Impacts, which finally leads to political Responses. A key objective of IEA is to facilitate the framing and implementation of policies and strategies. Secondly, the paper summarises the results of the first broader exercise of IEA at the EEA an environmental assessment of the European Community's Fifth Action Programme. Although limited in scope, the exercise provides lessons to be learned. Therefore, the paper concludes, assessments should be validated and be based on the most up-to-date findings, and links need to be created and maintained with the appropriate scientific/research communities. The IEA concept and its approaches should be further elaborated on a European scale according to prominent environmental problems that have a transboundary or a multi-national character. Cost-benefit studies should be enhanced. Finally, improved information is required on the DPSIR framework, including the interrelationship between the economic and environmental systems.     

Water safety plans as a tool for drinking water regulatory frameworks in Arctic communities

Arctic communities often face drinking water supply challenges that are unique to their location. Consequently, conventional drinking water regulatory strategies often do not meet the needs of these communities. A literature review of Arctic jurisdictions was conducted to evaluate the current water management approaches and how these techniques could be applied to the territory of Nunavut in Canada. The countries included are all members of the Arctic Council and other Canadian jurisdictions considered important to the understanding of water management for Northern Canadian communities. The communities in Nunavut face many challenges in delivering safe water to customers due to remoteness, small community size and therefore staffing constraints, lack of guidelines and monitoring procedures specific to Nunavut, and water treatment and distribution systems that are vastly different than those used in southern communities. Water safety plans were explored as an alternative to water quality regulations as recent case studies have demonstrated the utility of this risk management tool, especially in the context of small communities. Iceland and Alberta both currently have regulated water safety plans (WSPs) and were examined to understand shortcomings and benefits if WSPs were to be applied as a possible strategy in Nunavut. Finally, this study discusses specific considerations that are necessary should a WSP approach be applied in Nunavut.     

Revisions to the derivation of the Australian and New Zealand guidelines for toxicants in fresh and marine waters

The Australian and New Zealand Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Water Quality are a key document in the Australian National Water Quality Management Strategy. These guidelines released in 2000 are currently being reviewed and updated. The revision is being co-ordinated by the Australian Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities, while technical matters are dealt with by a series of Working Groups. The revision will be evolutionary in nature reflecting the latest scientific developments and a range of stakeholder desires. Key changes will be: increasing the types and sources of data that can be used; working collaboratively with industry to permit the use of commercial-in-confidence data; increasing the minimum data requirements; including a measure of the uncertainty of the trigger value; improving the software used to calculate trigger values; increasing the rigour of site-specific trigger values; improving the method for assessing the reliability of the trigger values; and providing guidance of measures of toxicity and toxicological endpoints that may, in the near future, be appropriate for trigger value derivation. These changes will markedly improve the number and quality of the trigger values that can be derived and will increase end-users’ ability to understand and implement the guidelines in a scientifically rigorous manner.