Relationships among five forms of commitment: an empirical assessment

This paper examined whether Morrow's (1993) model of five universal forms of work commitment (affective organizational commitment, continuance organizational commitment, career commitment, job involvement and work ethic endorsement) has empirical support. The paper explored the discriminant validity among the five scales of these commitment forms. It also tested Morrow's model regarding the interrelationships among them in comparison with an alternative conceptualization proposed by Randall and Cote (1991). Two hundred and thirty‐eight nursing staff from two hospitals in western Canada were surveyed. Results of confirmatory factor analysis (LISREL VIII) and correlation analysis showed an acceptable discriminant validity among the five commitment foci. The results of path analysis (LISREL VIII) showed a poor fit with the data of Morrow's model and a better fit with the alternative model of Randall and Cote. Revised models based on the modification indices from both models were tested, and supported the Randall and Cote approach. The paper concludes with implications regarding the continuing assessment of Morrow's conceptualization to establish an acceptable definition and measurement of universal forms of work commitment. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Another look at the locus of control–organizational commitment relationship: it depends on the form of commitment

Previous studies imply that individuals with an external locus of control (LOC) are less likely to be committed to their organizations. More recent work on organizational commitment has suggested that commitment is not a unidimensional construct and can take several forms (e.g., affective and continuance). Using a sample of 232 employees of a Canadian governmental agency, we examined the relations between LOC and two different forms of organizational commitment that have been found to have different antecedents and consequences. We found that internal LOC was associated with affective commitment and external LOC was associated with continuance commitment. Implications for research and practice are discussed. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The influence of organizational democracy on employees' socio‐moral climate and prosocial behavioral orientations

This study investigates the effects of workers' perceived participation in democratic decision‐making on their prosocial behavioral orientations, democratic values, commitment to the firm, and perceptions of socio‐moral climate. The sample consists of 325 German‐speaking employees from 22 companies in Austria, North Italy, and Southern Germany that vary in their level of organizational democracy (social partnership enterprises, workers' co‐operatives, democratic reform enterprises, and employee‐owned self‐governed firms). The findings suggest that the extent employees participate in democratic forms of organizational decision‐making is positively related to the firm's socio‐moral climate as well as to their own organizational commitment and prosocial and community‐related behavioral orientations. The results also indicate that socio‐moral climate is positively related to employees' organizational commitment. The effect of participation in decision‐making on organizational commitment is partially mediated by socio‐moral climate. Implications for promoting societal and organizational civic virtues among individuals are described. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Cross‐level effects of demography and diversity climate on organizational attachment and firm effectiveness

We studied the impact of demographic diversity on individual attachment and firm unit performance in a relatively diverse organization. We implemented cross‐level regression to study gender and race/ethnic categorical, relational, and organizational demography in a sample of 26 units part of a regional restaurant chain. At the individual level, we found that diversity climate (DC) moderates the impact of relational and categorical demography on affective organizational commitment, organizational identification, and intention to quit. At the organizational level, we found that DC moderates the impact of organizational diversity on firm productivity and return on profit. We discuss the importance of organizational DC as organizational context on individual attachment, and implications for firm effectiveness in diverse organizations. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Cognitive and affective identification: Exploring the links between different forms of social identification and personality with work attitudes and behavior

Individuals often identify with groups in order to either reduce perceived uncertainty or to feel better about who they are as individuals. This suggests that cognitive and affective identification are two distinctive forms of social identification in organizational settings. Because neurotic individuals are highly motivated to reduce perceived uncertainty, they will tend to identify cognitively with groups. Extraverted individuals, on the other hand, are highly motivated to enhance how they feel about themselves and thus identify affectively with groups. Across three studies, we develop measures of cognitive and affective identification and then show that neuroticism is positively related to cognitive identification, whereas extraversion is positively related to affective identification. We also find that affective identification provides incremental predictive validity over and above cognitive identification in the prediction of organizational commitment, organizational involvement, and organizational citizenship behaviors. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Organizational commitment,turnover and absenteeism: An examination of direct and interaction effects

A three component model of organizational commitment was used to study job withdrawal intentions, turnover and absenteeism. Affective commitment emerged as the most consistent predictor of these outcome variables and was the only view of commitment related to turnover and to absenteeism. In contrast, normative commitment was related only to withdrawal intentions while no direct effects for continuance commitment were observed. Continuance commitment, however, interacted with affective commitment in predicting job withdrawal intentions and absenteeism. The form of the interaction was such that high sunk costs tempered relationships between affective commitment and the relevant outcome variables.     

Antecedents and consequences of satisfaction with work–family balance: A moderating role of perceived insider status

This study developed a moderated mediation model to investigate how family‐supportive paid leave and supervision affect employees' satisfaction with work–family balance and in turn their affective organizational commitment and supervisor‐directed organizational citizenship behavior depending on their perceived insider status in the organization. Our analysis of data collected from 118 employee–supervisor dyads in Korean organizations revealed that satisfaction with work–family balance mediated the linkages from family‐supportive supervision to affective organizational commitment and supervisor‐directed organizational citizenship behavior, and the linkage from family‐supportive paid leave to affective organizational commitment. Results further showed that the entire mediational process for family‐supportive supervision was more pronounced for those who perceived themselves to be an insider of their organizations, while the same pattern was not found for the meditational process related to family‐supportive paid leave. Our findings provide theoretical implications for work–family balance research and offer practical suggestions to make employees satisfied with work–family balance.     

Organizations and supervisors as sources of support and targets of commitment: a longitudinal study

The main objective of this study was to examine the relationship between perceived support and affective commitment, and the linkages between these constructs and some of their common antecedents and consequences. More precisely, using a sample of 238 employees, we conducted a longitudinal study to examine the linkages between the favorableness of intrinsically and extrinsically satisfying job conditions, perceived organizational support, perceived supervisor support, affective commitment to the organization and supervisor, and turnover. Affective commitment to the supervisor was found to completely mediate the effect of perceived supervisor support on turnover, whereas neither perceived organizational support nor organizational affective commitment were significantly related to turnover. Perceived organizational support partially mediated the effect of favorable intrinsically satisfying job conditions on organizational affective commitment and fully mediated the effect of extrinsically satisfying job conditions on organizational affective commitment. Finally, perceived supervisor support totally mediated the effect of favorable intrinsically satisfying job conditions on affective commitment to the supervisor. As a whole, findings suggest that exchange relationships between employees and their supervisors should be further investigated in future turnover research. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

An integrative model of managerial perceptions of employee commitment: antecedents and influences on employee treatment

An integrative model of antecedents and outcomes of managerial perceptions of employee organizational commitment was developed and tested with 490 employees of a publicly owned U.S. manufacturing firm. The results are consistent with predictions showing that self‐reported affective commitment and supervisor‐focused impression management predicted managerial perceptions of affective commitment, whereas age, tenure, education, training and development, and self‐focused impression management were related to managerial perceptions of continuance commitment. Furthermore, manager‐rated affective and continuance commitment were differentially related to supervisory treatment of the employee (i.e. receiving contingent rewards and non‐contingent punishment). The results of this study show how managers develop perceptions of affective and continuance commitment, and through their associated treatment of employees, has important implications for the ways managers may serve to enhance or detract from employee contributions to the organization. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Examination of the combined effects of work values and early work experiences on organizational commitment

We tested the hypothesis that the influence of early work experiences on organization commitment would be moderated by the value employees place on these experiences. We measured work values in two samples of recent university graduates prior to organizational entry, and obtained measures of commensurate work experiences and three forms of commitment (affective, continuance, and normative: Allen and Meyer, 1990) on different occasions following entry. Regression analyses revealed that values and experiences did interact in the prediction of affective commitment and normative commitment, but that the nature of the interaction was different for different work value/experience combinations. The findings provide some challenge to the common sense assumption that positive work experiences will have the strongest effect on commitment among those who most value such experiences. Implications for research and practice are discussed. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Antecedents and consequences of role stress: A covariance structure analysis

An earlier model of the consequences of role conflict and role ambiguity is expanded to incorporate antecedent job conditions and the outcome of organizational commitment. This newer model clarifies the impact of role stressors on commitment and other established outcomes (i.e. tension, job dissatisfaction, and turnover intention). The antecedent job conditions are added in consideration of research indicating that role conflict and ambiguity do not directly influence affective and behavioral reactions when other perceptions of the work environment are included in the analysis. A LISREL analysis of this model with cross-validation on an independent sample indicated that the direct effects of participation and co-worker social support on job satisfaction may account for the direct effects of role conflict and role ambiguity on satisfaction and turnover intention observed in previous studies. In addition, organizational commitment appeared to mediate the effects of other variables on turnover intention. Implications for theories of role-related variables and directions for future research are discussed.     

Valuing diversity: a group‐value approach to understanding the importance of organizational efforts to support diversity

Using Leventhal's rules as well as the group‐value model of procedural justice, we first examined how the negative effects of perceived racial discrimination on procedural justice judgments can be attenuated by perceived organizational efforts to support diversity. Secondly, we examine how these effects ultimately impact affective commitment and organizational citizenship behavior. We found that employees who believe some individuals in the workplace are discriminating against them on the basis of race tend to report lower levels of procedural justice from the organization. However, this negative relationship was attenuated when employees perceived that their organization was making efforts to support diversity. Results suggest that individuals' perceptions of organizational efforts to support diversity can help restore perceptions of procedural justice for employees who experience racial discrimination at work. Improving procedural justice also positively impacts affective commitment and organizational citizenship behavior directed at the organization. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Managing the career deal: the psychological contract as a framework for understanding career management,organizational commitment and work behavior

This paper reports the findings of a study that investigated the relationship between different kinds of career management activities, the psychological contract, and outcomes of psychological contract fulfillment. The study tested a series of linked hypotheses which propose that individual career management behavior is associated with the experience of organizational career management help, which is related to fulfillment of the psychological contract. Fulfillment of the psychological contract in turn is linked to organizational commitment and is associated with behaviors at work, including absenteeism, turnover, and independent ratings of job performance. The findings provide some support for these proposed links. As a result, the paper makes four contributions to the psychological contract and careers literature: first, it shows that both individual and organizational career management behaviors are linked to psychological contract fulfillment; second, organizational career management help is associated with affective commitment and job performance; third, psychological contract fulfillment plays a key role in mediating the relationship between career management help and such attitudes and behaviors; and fourth, organizational commitment may mediate between psychological contract fulfillment and individual career management behavior aimed at furthering the career outside the organization. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

What does safety commitment mean to leaders? A multi-method investigation

Introduction: Perceived management safety commitment as an aspect of safety climate or culture is a key influence on safety outcomes in organizations. What is unclear is how perceptions of management commitment are created by leaders. Method: To address this gap in the literature, we position safety commitment as a leadership construct viewed from the perspectives of the leaders who experience and demonstrate it. In this paper, an established multidimensional commitment framework is applied to leaders' safety commitment (consisting of affective, normative, and calculative commitment). Via an exploratory sequential mixed methods design combining interviews (n = 40) and surveys (n = 89), we investigate the applicability of this theoretical conceptualization to safety commitment. Results: The results indicate the multiple dimensions captured leaders' safety commitment well, safety commitment can be demonstrated via a range of behaviors, and the dimensions' association with behavioral demonstrations aligned with those of other types of commitment reported in the literature. Only affective safety commitment was consistently associated with demonstrations of safety commitment. The link between high levels of affective and normative safety commitment and demonstrations was more pronounced when participants perceived their company's safety climate more positively. Conclusions: Adopting a focus on leaders' experience of safety commitment offers opportunities for new research into the way in which safety commitment perceptions are shaped by leaders. Practical application: The findings can support leaders' reflection about their personal mindset around safety and support them in fostering strong safety climates and cultures. It further encourages organizations in creating work environments that in particular foster affective and normative safety commitments in leaders.     

Relationships of gender,family responsibility and flexible work hours to organizational commitment and job satisfaction

Psychological contract theory (Rousseau, 1995) suggests that women and those with family responsibilities may negotiate new psychological contracts that include family-responsive benefits such as flexible work hours. Relationships of gender, family responsibility, and flexible work hours to organizational commitment and job satisfaction were examined among 160 matched male and female managers in a cross-organizational study. Results revealed that women who perceived their organizations offered flexible work hours reported higher levels of organizational commitment and job satisfaction than women who did not. Also, flexible work hours were related to higher organizational commitment and job satisfaction for those having family responsibilities. Implications of these results for future research and organizational policy are discussed. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Differentiating antecedents of organizational commitment: a test of March and Simon's model

Recent theory regarding the nature of organizational commitment suggests that viewing it as comprised of two dimensions, value commitment and continuance commitment, is of theoretical and practical value. This field study found the differential antecedents of these two commitment dimensions to be consistent with the March and Simon (1958) framework using the two-dimensional organizational commitment questionnaire from Mayer and Schoorman (1992). Organizational tenure, retirement benefits, education, and age were more highly correlated with continuance commitment, while felt participation, perceived prestige, job involvement, and role ambiguity were more highly correlated with value commitment. Analysis using LISREL 7 supported the pattern of relationships between the antecedents and the two commitment dimensions. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The mediating effects of multidimensional commitment on job satisfaction and intent to leave

Structural equation modeling is used to estimate the mediating effects of affective, continuance, and normative commitment on the relationship between job satisfaction and intent to leave. Several competing configurational models are tested to determine whether the best fitting model is one whereby multidimensional commitment fully mediates, partially mediates, or does not mediate the relationship between job satisfaction and intent to leave. The results suggest that contrary to Meyer and Allen's (1991) fully mediated three‐component model of organizational commitment, a partially mediated model fits the data best for this study. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Formal mentoring versus supervisor and coworker relationships: differences in perceptions and impact

Formal mentoring programs in two companies were examined regarding (1) the extent to which mentees and mentors agreed on the nature of the mentoring relationships and (2) the extent to which dimensions of mentoring relationships were related to outcomes for the mentees, compared with the extent to which dimensions of supervisory and coworker relationships were related to the same outcomes: job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intentions. Mentors were at least two hierarchical levels above the mentee, and both were part of the companyies' formal mentoring program. Sixty‐one pairs of mentors and mentees participated. Overall, there was little agreement between mentees and mentors regarding the nature of the mentoring relationship. Furthermore, the mentoring relationship was not related to mentee outcomes, while supervisory and coworker relationships were. It is suggested that, if one desires to affect job satisfaction, turnover intentions, and organizational commitment, mentoring functions may be best performed by supervisors and coworkers rather than assigned formal mentors from higher up in the organizational hierarchy. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Dispositional affectivity as a predictor of work attitudes and job performance

Previous research has shown that dispositional negative affect (NA) is associated with lower levels of job satisfaction. Little research has been conducted, however, on other organizational implications of negative affect or on the potential effects of dispositional positive affect (PA). The present studies examined the relationship of both positive and negative affectivity to organizational commitment, turnover intentions, global job satisfaction and performance. In the first study both NA and PA were associated with organizational commitment and turnover intentions. Additionally, commitment mediated the relationship between dispositional affectivity and turnover. Finally, PA and tenure interacted to predict job performance, such that PA and job performance were positively related, but only for high tenure employees. In Study 2 the findings were generally similar, but not identical. Both NA and PA were related to global job satisfaction and turnover intentions. However, only PA was related to affective organizational commitment. Moreover, both job satisfaction and affective commitment mediated the relationship between dispositional affectivity and turnover intentions. Finally, unlike Study 1, PA was not related to job performance. Rather, NA and tenure interacted such that when individuals were lower in tenure, NA was negatively related to performance.     

Human resource management systems and work attitudes: The mediating role of future time perspective

This paper examines the role of employees' future time perspective (FTP) in the association between human resource management (HRM) systems and work‐related attitudes. Drawing on social exchange theory, signaling theory, and affective events theory, we hypothesize HRM systems' indirect effects on individual‐level job satisfaction and affective organizational commitment as mediated by FTP. The results of this multilevel study, comprising 913 employees of 76 business units, provide evidence that HRM systems have (i) direct effects on employees' FTP and (ii) indirect effects on job satisfaction and organizational commitment via FTP. In addition, three HRM bundles' (i.e., knowledge, skills, and abilities enhancing; motivation enhancing; and opportunity enhancing) corresponding indirect effects are explored. We discuss the results, theoretical contributions, and practical implications of the study, as well as future research directions. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.