Forest frontiers out of control: The long-term effects of discourses,policies, and markets on conservation and development of the Brazilian Amazon

With the Brazilian military governments of the 1960s, systematic economic development of the Amazon began. Social and environmental concerns have entered Amazonian discourses and policies only since the 1990s. Since then, reports of threats to forests and indigenous people have alternated with reports of socio-economic progress and environmental achievements. These contradictions often arise from limited thematic, sectoral, temporal, or spatial perspectives, and lead to misinterpretation. Our paper offers a comprehensive picture of discourses, policies, and socio-environmental dynamics for the entire region over the last five decades. We distinguish eight historical policy phases, each of which had little effect on near-linear dynamics of demographic growth and land-use expansion, although some policies showed the potential to change the course of development. To prevent local, national, and international actors from continuing to assert harmful interests in the region, a coherent long-term commitment and change in the collective mindset are needed.     

Distribution coefficients of potentially toxic elements in soils from the eastern Amazon

The solid-solution distribution or partition coefficient (Kd) is a measure of affinity of potentially toxic elements (PTE) for soil colloids. Kd plays a key role in several models for defining PTE guideline values in soils and for assessing environmental risks, and its value depends on edaphic and climatic conditions of the sites where the soils occur. This study quantified Kd values for Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, and Zn from representative soil samples from Brazil’s eastern Amazon region, which measures 1.2 million km². The Kd values obtained were lower than those set by both international and Brazilian environmental agencies and were correlated with the pH, Fe and Mn oxide content, and cationic exchange capacity of the soils. The following order of decreasing affinity was observed: Pb?>?Cu?>?Hg?>?Cr?>?Cd?≈?Co?>?Ni?>?Zn.     

Soybean production and conversion of tropical forest in the Brazilian Amazon: the case of Vilhena, Rondônia

The recent rise in Brazilian soybean production has generated concern among the environmental community and some authors that natural tropical environments of the Amazon Basin are being converted to soybean fields. Proponents of soybean production counter that soybeans represent a viable agricultural commodity for the region; environmental concern is unwarranted, because new soybean fields are replacing already deforested or otherwise transformed lands. Both arguments have been made without comprehensive study and measure of land-use/land-cover (LULC) in areas undergoing expansion of soybean production. This case study, conducted in the municipality of Vilhena, Rond?nia, Brazil, in the southwestern Amazon Basin, uses remote sensing to evaluate the LULC accompanying this municipality's large growth in soybean production from 1996 to 2001. Forests are being converted for soybean production, but most of the production increase appears attributable to slight expansion of already existing fields, conversion of already deforested land, and higher yields.     

Biomass burning losses of carbon estimated from ecosystem modeling and satellite data analysis for the Brazilian Amazon region

To produce a new daily record of gross carbon emissions from biomass burning events and post-burning decomposition fluxes in the states of the Brazilian Legal Amazon (Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatistica (IBGE), 1991. Anuario Estatistico do Brasil, Vol. 51. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil pp. 1–1024). We have used vegetation greenness estimates from satellite images as inputs to a terrestrial ecosystem production model. This carbon allocation model generates new estimates of regional aboveground vegetation biomass at 8-km resolution. The modeled biomass product is then combined for the first time with fire pixel counts from the advanced very high-resolution radiometer (AVHRR) to overlay regional burning activities in the Amazon. Results from our analysis indicate that carbon emission estimates from annual region-wide sources of deforestation and biomass burning in the early 1990s are apparently three to five times higher than reported in previous studies for the Brazilian Legal Amazon (Houghton et al., 2000. Nature 403, 301–304; Fearnside, 1997. Climatic Change 35, 321–360), i.e., studies which implied that the Legal Amazon region tends toward a net-zero annual source of terrestrial carbon. In contrast, our analysis implies that the total source fluxes over the entire Legal Amazon region range from 0.2 to 1.2 Pg C yr⁻¹, depending strongly on annual rainfall patterns. The reasons for our higher burning emission estimates are (1) use of combustion fractions typically measured during Amazon forest burning events for computing carbon losses, (2) more detailed geographic distribution of vegetation biomass and daily fire activity for the region, and (3) inclusion of fire effects in extensive areas of the Legal Amazon covered by open woodland, secondary forests, savanna, and pasture vegetation. The total area of rainforest estimated annually to be deforested did not differ substantially among the previous analyses cited and our own.     

Use and fate of pesticides in the Amazon State,Brazil

During the last 30 years, the increase of the human population in the Amazon introduced the need for additional food production and caused the state government to implement programs to increase and improve agricultural production. The production of nontraditional crops introduced several problems unknown to traditional farmers, since they are not well adapted to tropical conditions. Their susceptibility to insects, fungi and other plagues, and the competition with native vegetation forced farmers to use pesticides intensively. Amazonian farmers were not adequately prepared for the use of this new technology; they ignored the risk of pesticides to human health and the environment. Using the region of the state capital Manaus as an example, the characteristics of the pesticide use are described (e.g. the increased use and the lack of personal protective equipment, as well as the legal situation). In detail, the registration status of pesticides used in the State of Amazonas and the state of their registration in the European Union is compared. Finally, it is concluded that the use and the fate of pesticides in the Amazon region has to be monitored. Data of the effects on humans and on the environment have to be collected from the literature or have to be produced in standardized tests, so that an environmental risk assessment becomes possible. Training and information programs are urgently needed in order to build up environmentally sustainable agriculture. Finally, the enforcement of Brazilian laws concerning pesticide registration has to be improved.     

Population, development and the environment: Programme of Action adopted at the 1994 International Conference on Population and Development

The world community faces a major challenge in addressing the implications of rapid global population growth. The 1994 International Conference on Population and Development responded by reaffirming that population growth, development and the environment are closely interrelated. It adopted a Programme of Action, which goes beyond the traditional exclusive focus on demographics, and places population issues in the context of women's empowerment, sustained economic growth and sustainable development, and rejects coercion in population policies and programmes. The Programme of Action calls upon states to establish and implement national policies and plans of action to address population and development issues. It also underscores the need for increased international cooperation to achieve the objectives and goals set out in the Programme of Action.     

Ozone dynamics and deposition processes at a deforested site in the Amazon basin

The goal of this study is to investigate the impact of deforestation on ozone dynamics and deposition in the Brazilian Amazon basin. This goal is accomplished through i) analyses of ozone levels and deposition rates at a deforested site during the rainy season; and ii) comparisons of these data with similar information derived at a forest. At the pasture site maximum ozone mixing ratios reach 20 parts per billion on a volume basis (ppbv) but about 6 ppbv prevail over the forest. Maximum ozone deposition velocities for pastures can reach 0.7 cm s-1, which is about threefold lower than values derived for forests. Combining ozone abundance and deposition velocities, pasture maximum ozone fluxes reach approximately 0.2 microgram (ozone) m-2 s-1. This flux represents approximately 70% of the deposition rates measured over the forest. Hence, this study suggests that conversion of rainforests to pastures could lead to a net reduction (30%) in the ozone sink in the Amazon.     

Effects of a shipwreck on the zooplankton community in a port region of the Amazon

Environmental Science and Pollution Research - The port regions of the Amazon are subject to environmental impacts high shipping traffic. In October 2015, a cargo ship containing 5000 oxen sank in...     

Aquaculture expansion in Brazilian freshwaters against the Aichi Biodiversity Targets

The Convention on Biological Diversity proposed the Aichi Biodiversity Targets to improve conservation policies and to balance economic development, social welfare, and the maintenance of biodiversity/ecosystem services. Brazil is a signatory of the Aichi Biodiversity Targets and is the most diverse country in terms of freshwater fish, but its national policies have supported the development of unsustainable commercial and ornamental aquaculture, which has led to serious disturbances to inland ecosystems and natural resources. We analyzed the development of Brazilian aquaculture to show how current aquaculture expansion conflicts with all 20 Aichi Targets. This case suggests that Brazil and many other megadiverse developing countries will not meet international conservation targets, stressing the need for new strategies, such as the environmental management system, to improve biodiversity conservation.     

Experimental study on the survival of the water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms—Pontederiaceae) under different oil doses and times of exposure

In the last decades, petroleum activities have increased in the Brazilian Amazon where there is oil exploration on the Urucu River, a tributary of the Amazon River, about 600 km from the city of Manaus. Particularly, transportation via the Amazon River to reach the oil refinery in Manaus may compromise the integrity of the large floodplains that flank hundreds of kilometers of this major river. In the Amazon floodplains, plant growth and nutrient cycling are related to the flood pulse. When oil spills occur, floating oil on the water surface is dispersed through wind and wave action in the littoral region, thus affecting the vegetation of terrestrial and aquatic environments. If pollutants enter the system, they are absorbed by plants and distributed in the food chain via plant consumption, mortality, and decomposition. The effect of oil on the growth and survival of vegetation in these environments is virtually unknown. The water hyacinth [Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms] has a pantropical distribution but is native to the Amazon, often growing in high-density populations in the floodplains where it plays an important role as shelter and food source for aquatic and terrestrial biota. The species is well known for its high capacity to absorb and tolerate high levels of heavy metal ions. To study the survival and response of water hyacinth under six different oil doses, ranging from 0 to 150 ml l^?1, and five exposure times (1, 5, 10, 15, and 20 days), young individuals distributed in a completely randomized design experiment composed of vessels with a single individual each were followed over a 50-day period (30-day acclimatization, 20 days under oil treatments). Growth parameters, biomass, visual changes in the plants, and pH were recorded at 1, 5, 10, 15, and 20 days. Increasing the time of oil exposure caused a decrease in biomass, ratio of live/dead biomass and length of leaves, and an increase in the number of dead leaves. Dose of oil and time of exposure are the most important factors controlling the effects of petroleum hydrocarbons on E. crassipes. Although the species is able to survive exposure to a moderate dose of oil, below 75 ml l^?1 for only 5 days, severe alterations in plant growth and high mortality were observed. Therefore, we conclude that Urucu oil heavily affects E. crassipes despite its known resistance to many pollutants.     

Policies to cope with air pollution in Europe: the Auto-oil Programme in the case of Athens

Air pollution is one of the most crucial current environmental problems, especially in urban areas. To confront air pollution, the European Union has implemented several policies and programmes. Among these, the Auto-oil Programme is a cost-effective framework which involves all relevant actors (car-makers, oil industries, governments, local authorities, etc.) in concerted action. Athens faces a severe air pollution problem. In this respect, Auto-oil seems to offer a promising chance for Athens to improve its atmosphere. The present paper examines the effectiveness of the Auto-oil Programme to relieve air pollution in Athens. Several additional measures are proposed whenever it seems to be necessary.     

Governance of Complex Socio-Environmental Risks: The Case of Hazardous Chemicals in the Baltic Sea

Complex socio-environmental risks challenge society. In response to scientific uncertainty and socio-political controversies, environmental governance, precaution, and the ecosystem approach to management are held forward as complements to governmental risk-based sector-restricted regulation. We analyze this development for hazardous substances in the Baltic Sea. Based on interviews and policy analysis, we study informal governance and, in particular, four central EU and international policies, and investigate how present governance relates to risks and objectives at hand. While showing emergence of broader governance approaches, we conclude that central objectives will not likely be met. Furthermore, we question the quest for broad environmental governance and emphasize the value of command and control regulation, if it implements precaution. These findings contribute to the theorizing on environmental (risk) governance. Finally, we provide some ideas that could help development and implementation of risk policies for hazardous chemicals in the Baltic Sea as well as other complex risks.     

Effects of three pesticides on the avoidance behavior of earthworms in laboratory tests performed under temperate and tropical conditions

Little research has been performed on the impact of pesticides on earthworms under tropical conditions. Taking into consideration the often-limited resources in tropical countries, simple screening tests are needed. Therefore, it was investigated whether three pesticides relevant for the Brazilian Amazon (benomyl, carbendazim, lambda-cyhalothrin) affect the avoidance behavior of the earthworm Eisenia fetida. The tests were performed for two days according to ISO guideline 17512 but were adapted to tropical conditions (i.e. test substrate, test organism and temperature). The results indicate that this test gives reproducible and reliable results. Toxicity values (NOEC, EC50) are lower than those determined in 14 day-acute mortality tests and are approximately in the same range such as those found in 56 day-chronic reproduction tests with the same earthworm species, which were performed in parallel. Therefore, the use of the earthworm avoidance tests is recommended as a screening tool for the risk assessment of pesticides.     

Environmental impacts caused by cemeteries and crematoria,new funeral technologies,and preferences of the Northeastern and Southern Brazilian population as for the funeral process

Cemeteries and crematoria are the main funeral ways used in the world nowadays. It is a little-studied segment in the present days, mainly as for the possible environmental impacts in the environment, such as those derived from dental amalgam, prostheses, and dioxins, among other. This article aimed to identify the environmental impacts caused by cemeteries and crematoria and to point out new trends in funeral processes such as freeze-drying and alkaline hydrolysis. The study is justified due to the large part of the Brazilian population that do not know the environmental impacts caused by cemeteries and crematoria, as well as to bring information about the new processes. For that, a research was carried out with 400 people. The main results show that among all the funeral processes, the new freeze-drying process was opted by 33% of the sample. We also identified that the main reasons for choosing the funeral process were less environmental impact (28%), no after-death expenses (grave payment) (16.1%), and the possibility of putting away or throwing away the remains wherever you want (14.9%). Finally, new funeral processes were well accepted by the Brazilian population—those who were interviewed—due to their benefits.     

Comparative study of mercury speciation in commercial fishes of the Brazilian Amazon

Mercury is responsible for serious episodes of environmental pollution throughout the world, especially in the Amazon. This toxicity has led regulatory agencies to focus on fish as the target organism for protecting the health of humans and other sensitive organisms. Unfortunately, in the Amazon area, different sampling strategies and the wide variety of sampling areas and fish species make it extremely difficult to determine relationships across geographic regions or over time to ascertain historical trends. Thus, the aim of this work was to achieve three main objectives: a comparative study of mercury contamination in fish of Itaituba (Tapajós, located downstream of the largest gold-mining region in Amazon) and Belém (an area non-exposed to mercury pollution of anthropogenic origin), perform an analysis of inorganic mercury (IHg) versus monomethylmercury (MeHg) contents, and, finally, compare mercury contamination in Tapajós over time. Five piscivorous species were obtained in Itaituba and Belém. Also, four non-piscivorous species were collected in Itaituba. For the first time, mercury speciation showed that (1) current MeHg levels in piscivorous species in Tapajós are higher than those of the non-exposed area, (2) piscivorous species from Itaituba (dourada, filhote, and sarda) contained mercury levels above the World Health Organization safety limit (~17 %) and/or above the US Environmental Protection Agency tissue residue criterion (40 %), (3) increased MeHg is usually accompanied by increased IHg, and (4) the mean total mercury concentrations for piscivorous species in Itaituba were within the same range and, associated uncertainties as those previously reported, although a remarkable decreasing trend over time was observed for mean total Hg concentrations in non-piscivorous species from Itaituba. The present study supports the importance of continuous monitoring of both populations in the Amazon Rivers. Our results will better assist the development of preventive strategies and governmental actions to confront the problem of mercury contamination in the Amazon.     

Legal prerequisites for ecosystem-based management in the Baltic Sea area: The example of eutrophication

The purpose of this paper is to discuss the role of law in the management of the Baltic Sea, with focus on eutrophication. It aims to identify legal instruments or structures realizing an ecosystem approach. This also includes a discussion of the prerequisites of law as contributor to ecosystem-based management (EBM), as well as evaluation of current legal instruments. While ecosystem approach to environmental management is central to contemporary environmental management policy, it is still unclear what such an approach entails in concrete legal terms. The scope of the analysis stretches from international and EU legal regimes, to implementation and regulation within the national legal systems. A conclusion is that the management structures need further development to properly realize EBM, for example, through concretization of management measures, and clarification of duties and responsibilities for their realization.     

Use of the partition coefficient as an indicator of bioaccumulation tendency of dyestuffs in fish

Dyestuffs generally do not readily undergo aerobic biodegradation during sewage treatment processes and for new products an assessment of their bioaccumulation in fish is a requirement under certain environmental chemicals legislation. The results presented in this paper show that the partition coefficient in n-octanol/water is a useful indicator of the bioaccumulation tendency of dyestuffs, thus supporting its use as a screening test for bioaccumulation as proposed by the OECD Chemicals Testing Programme.     

Organic mercury levels among the Yanomama of the Brazilian Amazon Basin

The Catrimani River basin in northern Brazil is the home of the Yanomama and has been the site of renegade gold mining since 1980. Gold-mining operations release inorganic mercury (Hg) into the environment where it is organified and biomagnified in aquatic ecosystems. Ingestion of mercury-contaminated fish poses a potential hazard to fish-eating populations such as the Yanomama. We surveyed Hg levels in Yanomama villagers living near mined and unmined rivers in 1994 and 1995, and analyzed Hg levels in piranha caught by villagers. In 1994, 90 Yanomama Indians from 5 villages and in 1995, 62 Yanomama Indians from 3 villages participated in the studies. Four villages surveyed in 1994 were located directly on the Catrimani River, approximately 140-160 km downstream from past gold-mining activities. The other village surveyed in 1994 was situated on the unmined Ajaraní River. In 1995, 2 of the Catrimani River villages were revisited, and a third Yanomama village, on the unmined Pacu River, was surveyed. Blood organic mercury levels among all villagers surveyed ranged from 0 to 62.6 microg L(-1) (mean levels in each village between 21.2 microg L(-1) and 43.1 microg L(-1)). Mercury levels in piranha from the mined Catrimani River ranged from 235 to 1084 parts per billion (ppb). Nine of 13 piranhas, measuring 30 cm or longer had total mercury levels which exceeded mercury consumption limits (500 ppb) set by both the World Health Organization and the Brazilian Ministry of Health. Unexpectedly, high mercury levels were also observed in fish and villagers along the unmined Ajaraní and Pacu Rivers suggesting that indirect sources may contribute to environmental mercury contamination in the Amazon basin.     

Increasing concentrations of CO and O3 rising deforestation rates and increasing troposheric carbon monoxide and ozone in Amazonia

Increasing carbon monoxide and ozone concentrations have been observed in the lower troposphere of the Brazilian Amazon region in recent years (1989–1995). Carbon monoxide and ozone have been measured in the region continuously; from observations at a single site and many sporadic field missions, there is a clear indication that the chemical activity in the troposphere is growing, with increasing concentrations especially during the dry season. On the other hand, the most recent deforestation assessment by the Brazilian Government, performed by the Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais (INPE) using Landsat data, shows yearly rates rising from the 11,130 km² year^?1 minimum of the 1990/91 survey, to 13,786 km² year^?1 for the 1991/92 period, and 14,896 km² year^?1 for the period 1992/94. It is argued that the increase in deforestation/biomass burning activities in “Amazonia” have produced larger carbon monoxide and ozone concentrations in the lower atmosphere.     

The invisibility of fisheries in the process of hydropower development across the Amazon

We analyze the invisibility of fisheries and inadequacy of fishers’ participation in the process of hydropower development in the Amazon, focusing on gaps between legally mandated and actual outcomes. Using Ostrom’s institutional design principles for assessing common-pool resource management, we selected five case studies from Brazilian Amazonian watersheds to conduct an exploratory comparative case-study analysis. We identify similar problems across basins, including deficiencies in the dam licensing process; critical data gaps; inadequate stakeholder participation; violation of human rights; neglect of fishers’ knowledge; lack of organization and representation by fishers’ groups; and lack of governmental structure and capacity to manage dam construction activities or support fishers after dam construction. Fishers have generally been marginalized or excluded from decision-making regarding planning, construction, mitigation, compensation, and monitoring of the social–ecological impacts of hydroelectric dams. Addressing these deficiencies will require concerted investments and efforts by dam developers, government agencies and civil society, and the promotion of inter-sectorial dialogue and cross-scale participatory planning and decision-making that includes fishers and their associations.