Forced ventilation effect by Air-Fin-Cooler on flammable gas cloud dispersion

This paper is the second installment of a paper published on Process Safety and Environment Protection in 2013, which evaluates the Air-Fin-Cooler (AFC) forced ventilation effect over natural ventilation inside congested LNG process train, i.e., modularized LNG, considering the Air Change per Hour (ACH) using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) analysis. This second paper evaluates the effect of forced ventilation on gas cloud dispersion using CFD in order to evaluate possible design measures, such as safety distance in trains and whether to shut down the AFC in case of releases. The results of this evaluation show that gas cloud accumulation is reduced by AFC induced air flow in the case of shorter separation distances between modules. Based on the results, two design measures are proposed, i.e., keep AFC running during emergency and train orientation against prevailing wind direction.     

Approach enhancing inherent safety application in onshore LNG plant design

This study aims to provide the approach for inherent safety design of onshore LNG plants to be applied at the very early stages (concept definition phase) of the project development. Onshore LNG plant development project starts from the “Concept Definition” phase, where financial feasibility is estimated and major conditions, such as site location and plant foot print, are set.The inherent safety design basic criteria and design measures should be identified and selected when setting the basic conditions during the Concept Definition phase of the project development, such as the site location (relative location from populated areas), site condition (prevailing wind direction) and plant production capacity (number of process train, number of product tanks). The safety measures, which are usually not fully developed at the project early stages in the current design execution practices, are the emergency systems, which mitigate an accident escalation, the modularized plant and layout, and the tank selection.The inherent safety design measures discusses in this paper were identified based on the categories of plot plan, emergency system, and module plant application.The proposed approach will contribute to improve inherent safety design of onshore LNG plants and it will also yield schedule and cost benefits.     

Safety design approach for onshore modularized LNG liquefaction plant

A safety design approach for onshore modularized Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) liquefaction plant is discussed in this paper. As onshore modularized LNG liquefaction plants have both onshore and offshore plants features, and the safety in design for the plant can only be achieved when the project environment and specific design features are properly understood, this paper identifies specific safety design features of each plant (onshore and offshore) and compares the typical “onshore” and “offshore” safety design approaches. Based on this comparison and consideration for modularization features, a safety design approach for onshore modularized LNG liquefaction plant is proposed.     

地铁单面坡隧道列车火灾通风模式研究

针对地铁单面坡隧道连续下坡距离长、提升高度大的特点,以国内某城市地铁线路为研究对象,构建列车火灾通风排烟数值计算模型,并采用1:20模型实验对数值计算精确度进行验证,通过考虑列车起火位置、风机开启模式和隧道断面形式等因素,对火灾烟气扩散过程、疏散平台上方烟气温度和气体浓度进行分析。研究结果表明:列车起火后,单洞单线隧道2端车站应各开启2台隧道风机,单洞双线隧道除开启射流风机外,2端车站应各开启4台隧道风机执行相应的排烟和送风模式进行烟气控制;由于单洞双线隧道中热损失和空气卷吸量较大,火灾烟气温度、CO和CO2浓度均低于单洞单线隧道;采用纵向通风控制烟气逆流的同时,下风向区域的烟气沉降作用较为明显,防排烟设计中应充分考虑列车中部火灾下风向车厢区域的危险性,合理确定应急响应模式。     

液化天然气(LNG)瞬时泄漏扩散的模拟研究

对液化天然气泄漏扩散过程进行了分析,考虑其泄漏后发生闪蒸时的液滴夹带以及混合空气量,将闪蒸完的状态作为箱模型的初始状态,考虑空气的湿度影响建立了重气扩散过程的箱模型,并应用实例进行了验证,得出了泄漏后有火灾爆炸危险性的区域以及距离泄漏源的位置,为应急救援预案的制定提供参考,模拟结果显示了重气扩散过程中的重力沉降,空气夹带等一般特征,同时云团初始闪蒸时的液滴夹带对云团的扩散行为具有一定的影响,不能忽略.最后提出了今后的研究方向.     

Analysis of gas dispersion and ventilation within a comprehensive CAD model of an offshore platform via computational fluid dynamics

Maintaining an adequate air flow with a desired air quality that is free from hazardous gases is among the most important actions taken toward the improvement of safety in any process plant. Due to the increased focus on the consequences of existing hazardous material on safety, health, and the environment, air quality and sufficient ventilation within a plant has been increasingly considered in the design stage. This paper investigates and analyzes methane and hydrogen sulfite dispersion and the effect of air ventilation within a CAD model of an offshore platform using computation fluids dynamics (CFD). In addition, this method and its principals could be utilized in any other hazardous environment. Simulations of possible hazardous events along with solutions for preventing or reducing their probability are presented to better assess the data. These investigations are performed by considering hypothetical hazardous scenarios which consist of gas leakages from pipes and process equipment under different conditions. After drafting a precise and highly detailed CAD model of the plant and performing CFD simulations on this model, the results of gas behaviors, dispersion, distribution, accumulation, and its possible hazards are investigated and analyzed. The larger amount of details of the actual plant model in CFD simulation are obtained by using a combination of different methods and software. These include PDMS for 3-D drawing of the plan, Rinoceros for geometrical integration of the process equipment and facilities, and Sharc Harpoon which meshes the model. Moreover, the probability of inducing ignitable or toxic concentration of gases within the atmosphere and air ventilation of the unit is considered by these investigations.     

Risk reduction concept to provide design criteria for Emergency Systems for onshore LNG plants

The functional safety requirement is widely applied in the process plant industry in accordance with the international standards, such as IEC and ISA. The requirement is defined as safety integrity level (SIL) based on the risk reduction concept for protection layers, from original process risk to tolerable risk level. Although the standards specify both, the Prevention System and the Emergency System, as level of protection layers, the standards specify in detail only the use of the Prevention System (i.e., Safety Instrumented System (SIS)). The safety integrity level is not commonly allocated to the Emergency System (e.g., Fire and Gas System, Emergency Shutdown System and Emergency Depressuring System). This is because the required risk reduction can be normally achieved by only the Prevention System (i.e., SIS and Pressure Safety Valve (PSV)). Further, the risk reduction level for the Emergency System is very difficult to be quantified by the actual SIL application (i.e., evaluated based on the single accident scenario, such as an accident from process control deviation), since the escalation scenarios after Loss of Containment (LOC) greatly vary depending on the plant design and equipment. Consequently, there are no clear criteria for evaluating the Emergency System design. This paper aims to provide the functional safety requirement (i.e., required risk reduction level based on IEC 61508 and 61511) as design criteria for the Emergency System.In order to provide clear criteria for the Emergency System evaluation, a risk reduction concept integrated with public’s perception of acceptable risk criteria is proposed and is applied to identify the required safety integrity level for the Emergency System design. Further, to verify the safety integrity levels for the Emergency Systems, the probabilistic model of the Emergency Systems was established considering each Emergency System (e.g., Fire and Gas System, Emergency Shutdown System and Emergency Depressuring System) relation as the Overall Emergency System. This is because the Overall Emergency System can achieve its goal by the combined action of each individual system, including inherent safe design, such as separation distance.The proposed approach applicability was verified by conducting a case study using actual onshore Liquefied Natural Gas Plant data. Further, the design criteria for Emergency Systems for LNG plants are also evaluated by sensitivity analysis.     

Risk-based shutdown management of LNG units

Global demand for natural gas may double by 2030, with Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) growing perhaps fivefold - driven by continued cost reduction. Propane Pre-cooled Mixed Refrigerant (PPMR) of Air Products and Chemicals Inc. (APCI) currently holds 78% of the liquefaction plants on the market. Since the PPMR process has the largest production capacity, its operational reliability needs to be high as any failure may result in catastrophic consequences. Therefore, operational reliability has a key importance in LNG plants. To achieve an acceptable reliability, usually, a constant interval of a preventive maintenance method is used. The limitation of such a method is that the shutdown strategy is not optimum. This study focuses on determining a risk-based shutdown management strategy for APCI plants with capacity of 4.5 million tons per annum. To achieve the minimum risk for the expected life of an LNG plant, a combination of preventive maintenance, active redundancy and standby redundancy is considered. Results of this study reveal that such a combination can significantly reduce the operational risk. This combination improves the plant reliability and maintains it above a minimum operational reliability.     

Dynamic risk analysis of offloading process in floating liquefied natural gas (FLNG) platform using Bayesian Network

The growing demand for natural gas has pushed oil and gas exploration to more isolated and previously untapped regions around the world where construction of LNG processing plants is not always a viable option. The development of FLNG will allow floating plants to be positioned in remote offshore areas and subsequently produce, liquefy, store and offload LNG in the one position. The offloading process from an FLNG platform to a gas tanker can be a high risk operation. It consists of LNG being transferred, in hostile environments, through loading arms or flexible cryogenic hoses into a carrier which then transports the LNG to onshore facilities. During the carrier's offloading process at onshore terminals, it again involves risk that may result in an accident such as collision, leakage and/or grounding. It is therefore critical to assess and monitor all risks associated with the offloading operation. This study is aimed at developing a novel methodology using Bayesian Network (BN) to conduct the dynamic safety analysis for the offloading process of an LNG carrier. It investigates different risk factors associated with LNG offloading procedures in order to predict the probability of undesirable accidents. Dynamic failure assessment using Bayesian theory can estimate the likelihood of the occurrence of an event. It can also estimate the failure probability of the safety system and thereby develop a dynamic failure assessment tool for the offloading process at a particular FLNG plant. The main objectives of this paper are: to understand the LNG offloading process, to identify hazardous events during offloading operation, and to perform failure analysis (modelling) of critical accidents and/or events. Most importantly, it is to evaluate and compare risks. A sensitivity analysis has been performed to validate the risk models and to study the behaviour of the most influential factors. The results have indicated that collision is the most probable accident to occur during the offloading process of an LNG carrier at berth, which may have catastrophic consequences.     

FSRU作业过程火灾爆炸危险性评估研究

浮式储存和再气化装置（FSRU）运行过程中易导致火灾爆炸等事故的发生,为有效评估FSRU作业过程火灾爆炸危险性,采用火灾爆炸危险指数评估法,对运用FSRU的某浮式LNG接收终端进行危险性评估;选取LNG运输船与FSRU装料作业等9个单元,研究确定了一般工艺危险性系数、特殊工艺危险性系数、安全措施补偿系数等参数,得出了补偿前后的火灾爆炸危险性指数,有效评估了FSRU作业过程火灾爆炸危险性,并基于研究结果提出了保障FSRU作业安全的对策措施与建议。研究结果表明,安全措施补偿前,缘于LNG/NG本身的火灾危险性和数量较大,能量高度集中,LNG运输船与FSRU装料作业等单元的火灾爆炸危险等级均达到了“非常大”;在采取了一系列的安全措施补偿后,火灾爆炸危险指数降低了3/5左右。这对系统深入地研究FSRU作业安全具有较重要的理论意义和实际应用价值。     

Forced dispersion of LNG vapor with water curtain

Installation of effective safety measures to prevent and mitigate an accidental LNG release is critical. Water curtains are usually inexpensive, simple and reliable and currently have been recognized as an efficient technique to control and mitigate various hazards in the process industries including LNG industry. Actions of a water spray consist of a combination of several physical mechanisms. Detailed analysis of the complex mechanisms and the effects of water spray features to control and mitigate potential LNG vapor cloud are still unclear. This paper discusses the experimental research conducted by MKOPSC to study the physical phenomena involved and the effect of different types of water curtains parameters when applied for LNG vapor. The data from medium scale out-door experiments at the Brayton Fire Training School (BFTF), Texas, are summarized here to understand the relative importance of induced mechanical mixing effects, dilution with air, and heat transfer between water droplets and the LNG vapor. Field test results have determined that water curtains can reduce the concentration of the LNG vapor cloud. Due to the water curtain mechanisms of entrainment of air, dilution of vapor with entrained air, transfer of momentum and heat to the gas cloud, water curtain can disperse LNG vapor cloud to some extent.     

Influence of active mitigation barriers on LNG dispersion

In recent years, particular interest has been direct to the issues of risk associated with the storage, transport and use of Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) due to the increasing consideration that it is receiving for energy applications. Consequently, a series of experimental and modeling studies to analyze the behavior of LNG have been carried out to collect an archive of evaporation, dispersion and combustion information, and several mathematical models have been developed to represent LNG dispersion in realistic environments and to design mitigation barriers.This work uses Computational Fluid Dynamics codes to model the dispersion of a dense gas in the atmosphere after accidental release. In particular, it will study the dispersion of LNG due to accidental breakages of a pipeline and it will analyze how it is possible to mitigate the dispersing cloud through walls and curtains of water vapor and air, also providing a criterion for the design of such curtains.     

矿井通风系统稳定性SD预测仿真分析

为了建立矿井通风系统稳定性水平评价体系,以常村煤矿为研究背景,结合常村煤矿多风井、大风量、高瓦斯等特点,从技术、安全、经济角度建立一系列完整的评价指标体系,利用层次分析法确立指标权重,并结合属性数学理论形成通风系统稳定性综合评价模型,通过构建的模型对其进行综合评价。以通风系统综合评价为基础,从系统动力学角度,对常村煤矿未来2 a的通风系统稳定性水平进行仿真预测,总结其动态变化规律。研究结果表明:通风系统总体稳定性评价结果为良好,属于较稳定水平。常村煤矿通风系统稳定性水平在未来2 a内随着安全投入的增加呈总体增加趋势,但随着矿山通风系统稳定性水平的逐渐增加,稳定性增长速率将会减小。     

工业厂房自然通风的数值模拟及结构改进

采用计算流体动力学(CFD)技术(方法)对某钢铁厂房的自然通风过程进行数值模拟研究。采用Realizable k-ε湍流模型及DO辐射模型对该工业厂房的流场和温度场进行了数值计算,其计算结果与文献中实验值的对比吻合很好。在该基础上,进一步对热源分布和进风口、天窗排风口结构对自然通风效果的影响做了计算,结果表明:适当的减小排风口高度以及缩短生产线热源的间距等能够在一定程度上改善自然通风的效果。研究成果为工业厂房自然通风系统的设计提供了理论参考依据。     

基于CFD的半封闭空间内LNG泄漏后果研究

为定量分析半封闭空间内液化天然气（LNG）泄漏后果,利用计算流体力学（CFD）软件FLUENT,对不同条件下的“冷箱”内LNG泄漏后扩散与爆炸过程进行了模拟。结果表明:无论通风与否,危险区域（甲烷体积分数为5%~15%）一直存在,但通风时该区域比无通风时小; LNG泄漏后会导致箱内温度降低,且泄漏量越大温度下降越低,但通风在一定程度上能减小温降; 当危险区域最大时,发生爆炸产生的超压最大,对于泄漏量小的情况,通风能减小爆炸压力; 障碍物的存在会增大爆炸压力,研究中的最大爆炸超压为158 kPa,可对设备与人员造成严重危害,故在设计“冷箱”时须提出相应的强度要求。研究方法与结果对于与“冷箱”类似的受限空间安全设计与风险评估有指导意义。     

A protocol for the evaluation of LNG vapour dispersion models

The international transport, storage and utilisation of LNG is growing rapidly. Whilst the LNG industry has an excellent safety record, the possibility of an accidental release cannot be discounted. Internationally-accepted standards, such as the 59A Standard of the US National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), provide direction on the assessment of LNG spill hazards and hazard range criteria which must be met. Modelling of the atmospheric dispersion of LNG vapour from accidental spills is one of the critical steps in such hazard analyses. This paper describes a comprehensive evaluation protocol devised for the 59A Standard, specifically for the assessment of LNG vapour dispersion models. The evaluation protocol is based on methodologies developed in previous European Union studies, which have been extended, significantly adapted and tailored to the specific requirements of the evaluation of models for the dispersion of LNG vapour. The protocol comprises scientific evaluation of the numerical and physical basis of models for the dispersion of LNG vapour, model verification, and validation; resulting in a comprehensive model evaluation report which includes qualitative and quantitative criteria for model acceptance. A supporting suite of validation data, and guidance on the use of this data, has also been produced. The NFPA 59A (2009) standard states that LNG vapour dispersion models are acceptable for use if they have been evaluated in accordance with this protocol.     

基于CFD及正交试验的工作面流场参数优化

采空区注氮是一种常用的采空区防灭火及治理遗煤自燃的措施,与采空区瓦斯抽采及工作面通风相似,均会对整个工作面及采空区流场产生影响,为了实现工作面及采空区生产安全性及经济性最优化,对进风量、采空区流管总量、流管高度、流管间距、注氮量 、注氮位置六因素进行正交试验,借助数值模拟软件对正交试验确定的方案进行三维流场模拟,根据模糊数学相关理论选择模糊优选评价指标及指标权重,对所得结果进行优选,得到所有因素的最优解,进而得到优组合。实现采空区注氮、瓦斯抽采及工作面通风参数优化。     

均匀流送风对喷烤漆房污染物扩散研究

喷烤漆房内的污染物传播及火灾控制是喷烤漆房设计和使用时的重中之重,设计有效、合理的通风系统可很好地规避这一问题。以某喷烤漆房为原型建立了物理模型,应用数值模拟方法构建了喷漆过程中污染物扩散过程,并研究了产生均匀流的通风系统设计以及不同均匀流速对污染物扩散的影响规律。研究表明,采用纤维布形式可简单高效地构建静压箱结构形成均匀流。文中还建立了纤维布、过滤棉多孔介质模型,结果表明当均匀流速度为0.91 m/s时,喷漆人员面部附近的甲苯浓度降至喷射浓度的0.02%,远低于危害值。     

某国际机场航站楼离港层大空间的复合排烟方案

某国际机场航站楼的离港层大厅防火分区包括离港大厅和安检边检区,建筑面积近2万平米,最高处净高22米,最低处净高4米,属于复杂的大空间建筑,难以采用全区的机械排烟或自然排烟方案.采用了一种复合排烟方案以保证人员安全疏散和灭火救援,即在离港大厅内自然排烟,在安检边检区机械排烟,在离港大厅和安检边检区之间的大开口处设置挡烟垂壁,防止烟气相互蔓延.两个区域的排烟系统各自独立控制,但可以在排烟时通过大开口为相邻区域提供自然补风.此外还在安检边检区设置快速响应喷头来控制火灾热释放速率.该排烟方案充分利用了空问特点,有利于烟气控制和人员安全疏散.最后通过计算机数值模拟验证了该方案的合理性和有效性.     

长距离掘巷局部通风计算风筒中风量风压的一种新方法

长距离掘进巷道通风时风筒进风口和出风口会有大的风量差和风压差。为了选择合理的风机通风,需要研究风筒中风量、风压的变化规律。常规方法是利用经验或实验得到风筒接头平均漏风量,从而计算进风口的风量和风压。但对于长距离通风且每段风筒较小时该方法所计算的参数偏小,会对风机选型造成误差。本文另辟蹊径,根据风量、风压平衡定律,按照非连续性通风网络模型推导出了进风口的风量、风压与出风口处的关系,并给出了简化的近似关系,作为风筒通风参数计算的新方法。结合具体实例,发现参数近似值与精确值高度相似,说明可以利用近似关系进行计算,简单方便;同时比较了按新方法和常规方法计算的风筒进风风量和通风阻力的差异,结果表明长距离掘进巷道的风量风压按新方法计算更为科学。