Lead and cadmium in indoor air and the urban environment

The present study was conducted to find potential terrestrial biomonitors for heavy metals in indoor air in an urban environment. TSP, PM(10), and PM(2.5) were collected in three retirement facilities in the urban area of Vienna. In addition, particulate matter and soil, vegetation, and isopods (Porcellio scaber L.) were collected in the adjacent garden areas. Aerosols were sampled with a low-volume air sampler. The sampled materials were wet ashed and total lead and cadmium contents were determined. Water-soluble heavy metal concentrations were measured in aqueous extracts from air exposed filters, soil, and vegetation. Lead and cadmium were analyzed by graphite furnace AAS. Lead contents in the vegetation were inferred from water-soluble lead in soils. Lead in isopods generally reflected the contents in vegetation. Cadmium in plants probably derived from soil solutions as well as from atmospheric input. Isopods reflected the total cadmium contents in soils. Particulate matter was dominated by PM(2.5), both with respect to mass concentrations and to heavy metal contents. The indoor aerosol was found to be influenced by human activity, indoor sources, and outdoor particles. Relationships between indoor airborne heavy metals and the contents in vegetation (lead and cadmium: positive) and isopods (lead: negative) were identified to have the potential for biomonitoring indoor air quality.     

Concentrations of chromium,manganese, and lead in air and in avian eggs

The expansion of urbanization introduces air pollution to wildlife areas. Some metal contaminants occurring in concentrations too small to have any measurable impact on adult birds may seriously affect embryos that are more sensitive to contaminants than the adult. Chromium, manganese, and lead are toxic and can be passed from the hen to the egg. This study relates the concentrations of these metals in eggs to their concentrations in air in three cities. Rock dove eggs were sampled and air pollution records were examined in the California cities of Riverside, Los Angeles, and San Francisco. The eggs from San Francisco did not differ from those of Los Angeles in lead concentration but the air did differ. The eggs collected in Los Angeles in 1998 had concentrations of chromium greater than in those from Riverside and from Los Angeles 1999 but the air had concentrations of chromium that did not differ among those three collections. Concentrations of manganese did not differ among the eggs but did differ among the air samples of the three cities. Exposures of embryos to chromium and manganese in this study were not at levels warranting concern. Although the concentration at which lead in eggs impairs avian health is not established, the highest concentrations found in this study exceed estimated safe concentrations. There is no indication that embryo exposure is directly related to atmospheric levels of these metals in the cities of this study.     

Effects of heavy metals on sea urchin embryo development. 1. Tracing the cause by the effects

The toxicity of the polluted waters originating from a disused lead mine was evaluated using both sea urchin bioassays and heavy metal analysis. Samples from three polluted waters (a seawater and two freshwaters) were collected from the mine area and one seawater sample was taken from a non-contaminated reference site. The test waters contained higher concentrations of heavy metals such as manganese, lead, cadmium, zinc, chromium, nickel, iron, and copper than did ambient seawater. The three test waters had inhibitory effects, in a dose-dependent manner, on the first cleavage of sea urchin embryos and on pluteus formation during the development. Some malformations, such as a radialized pluteus, exo-gastrula, and spaceship Apollo-like embryos were induced by the test waters without dilution. Zinc alone also induced the same anomaly. Zinc in the test seawater was ascertained as one of the metals that caused the anomalies, but not all of the toxicity was caused by zinc. It was speculated that interactive effects, involving zinc and possibly manganese and nickel, were occurring.     

Responses of Gammarus pulex (Amphipoda, Crustacea) to metalliferous effluents: identification of toxic components and the importance of interpopulation variation

This study was designed to evaluate the ability of an in-situ bioassay to assess the impact of complex effluents on freshwaters and to identify toxic components. Reductions in the feeding rate of Gammarus pulex proved to be a sensitive indicator of the impact of metalliferous effluents on receiving water quality. The effluents contained a mixture of five potentially toxic metals. By combining information on feeding rates with bioaccumulation data, two metals, iron and manganese, were identified as the probable toxic agents. Laboratory experiments validated the conclusions reached from the field study and confirmed that iron was a major toxicant. The sensitivities of Gammarus pulex from a metal-contaminated site and a clean site were compared during both the field and laboratory studies. Interpopulation differences in the response of G. pulex to toxicants were detected in the field study but not in the laboratory experiments. Possible reasons for this are discussed.     

Effect of coal mine soil contamination on the elemental uptake and distribution in two edible Amaranthus species, A. dubius and A. hybridus

The impact of coal mine dump contaminated soil on the elemental uptake by two edible plants, namely, Amaranthus dubius (red herbs) and Amaranthus hybridus (green herbs), was studied by investigating their response and ability to tolerate and accumulate varying levels of elements in their roots and shoots. The vegetation was grown on varying amounts of contaminated soil, viz. 0%, 5%, 15%, 25% w/w using coal mine dump soil. The soil was analyzed for soil pH, cation exchange capacity (CEC), soil organic matter (SOM), moisture content, and selected heavy metals. The distribution of six metals, namely, Pb, Cd, Hg, Ni, Mn, and Fe, in roots, stem, and leaves of the plants was determined in two stages of growth after 5 weeks and 10 weeks. All soil and plant samples were microwave digested and subjected to heavy metal analysis using the ICP-OES, GFAAS, and CVAAS. The pH of the coal mine dump contaminated soil decreased with an increase in contamination. Both the SOM and CEC values decreased, which increases the availability of elements, by providing more binding sites in the soil. Relatively, the red herbs had higher elemental concentrations than the green herbs. Both plants recorded high manganese accumulation. No mercury was detected in the soils or plants.     

Study of contaminant transport at an open-tipping waste disposal site

Field and laboratory studies were conducted to estimate concentration of potential contaminants from landfill in the underlying groundwater, leachate, and surface water. Samples collected in the vicinity of the landfill were analyzed for physiochemical parameters, organic contaminants, and toxic heavy metals. Water quality results obtained were compared from published data and reports. The results indicate serious groundwater and surface water contamination in and around the waste disposal site. Analysis of the organic samples revealed that the site contains polychlorinated biphenyls and other organo-chlorine chemicals, principally chloro-benzenes. Although the amount of PCB concentration discovered was not extreme, their presence indicates a potentially serious environmental threat. Elevated concentrations of lead, copper, nickel, manganese, cadmium, and cobalt at the downgradient indicate that the contamination plume migrated further from the site, and the distribution of metals and metals containing wastes in the site is nonhomogeneous. These results clearly indicate that materials are poorly contained and are at risk of entering the environment. Therefore, full characterization of the dump contents and the integrity of the site are necessary to evaluate the scope of the problem and to identify suitable remediation options.     

Effect of Coal Mine Soil Contamination on the Elemental Uptake and Distribution in Two Edible Amaranthus Species,A. dubius and A. hybridus

The impact of coal mine dump contaminated soil on the elemental uptake by two edible plants, namely, Amaranthus dubius (red herbs) and Amaranthus hybridus (green herbs), was studied by investigating their response and ability to tolerate and accumulate varying levels of elements in their roots and shoots. The vegetation was grown on varying amounts of contaminated soil, viz. 0%, 5%, 15%, 25% w/w using coal mine dump soil. The soil was analyzed for soil pH, cation exchange capacity (CEC), soil organic matter (SOM), moisture content, and selected heavy metals. The distribution of six metals, namely, Pb, Cd, Hg, Ni, Mn, and Fe, in roots, stem, and leaves of the plants was determined in two stages of growth after 5 weeks and 10 weeks. All soil and plant samples were microwave digested and subjected to heavy metal analysis using the ICP-OES, GFAAS, and CVAAS. The pH of the coal mine dump contaminated soil decreased with an increase in contamination. Both the SOM and CEC values decreased, which increases the availability of elements, by providing more binding sites in the soil. Relatively, the red herbs had higher elemental concentrations than the green herbs. Both plants recorded high manganese accumulation. No mercury was detected in the soils or plants.     

Source characterization of atmospheric heavy metals in industrial/residential areas: a case study in Oman

Total suspended particulate matter (TSP) was collected from two districts: the Sohar industrial estate (SIE) and a residential area in the case study area in Oman. The TSP collected from SIE was taken from 19 different industrial activities, whereas those collected from the residential area were taken from 12 houses. The samples were analyzed for nine heavy metals: chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), manganese (Mn), nickel, lead (Pb), zinc (Zn), cadmium, vanadium, and molybdenum. The results were used to assess the source classes responsible for TSP and heavy metal levels in the atmosphere of the two districts. At each district, principal component analysis was applied to the concentrations of TSP and heavy metals to obtain the number of principal components. At SIE, three groups of elements were determined. The first component contained large factor loadings in Cu and Mn (Cu industrial processes and reinforcement steel production). The second presented most of the variance of Cr, Pb, and Zn (black and galvanized iron pipes production, mechanical industries, and vehicle construction). The third component was composed of Zn and Pb that probably reflected contributions from motor-vehicle tire wear or was associated with municipal incineration. On the other hand, results from the village showed that only one factor was able to explain the main part of the data variance, and the industrial site was polluting air quality in the village with Cu, Cr, Pb, nickel, and Mn.     

Effects of heavy metals on sea urchin embryo development. Part 2. Interactive toxic effects of heavy metals in synthetic mine effluents

Interactive toxic effects between heavy metals were investigated using a sea urchin (Anthocidaris crassispina) bioassay. An effluent from an abandoned mine showed significant inhibitory effects on embryo development as well as producing specific malformations. The effects on the embryos were reproduced by synthetic polluted seawater consisting of eight metals (manganese, lead, cadmium, nickel, zinc, chromium, iron, and copper) at the concentrations detected in the mine effluent. This indicated that the heavy metals were responsible for the effects observed. Five heavy metals were ranked in decreasing order of toxicity as follows: Cu>Zn>Pb>Fe>Mn. Among these, zinc and manganese could cause malformation of the embryos. From bioassay results using 27 combinations of heavy metals, 16 combinations including zinc could produce specific malformations, such as radialized, exo-gastrulal, and spaceship Apollo-like gastrulal embryos. Zinc was one of the elements responsible for causing malformations and its effects were intensified by the presence of the other metals, such as manganese, lead, iron, and copper.     

Relationships between metal concentrations in great tit nestlings and their environment and food

Metal concentrations (Ag, As, Cd, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, Zn) were determined in the feathers and excreta of nestling great tits (Parus major), in their main invertebrate prey (Lepidoptera larvae) and in vegetation samples, all collected from four sites along a pollution gradient. Metal contamination in vegetation samples increased significantly towards the pollution source. The Ag, As, Hg, Ni and Pb concentrations in food samples were significantly higher at the site closest to the pollution source compared to the other three sites. Great tit nestlings from the site closest to the pollution source had significantly higher concentrations of Ag, As, Hg and Pb in their excreta than did nestlings at the other three sites. For five metals (Ag, As, Cu, Ni and Pb), we found concentrations in caterpillars to be significantly positively correlated with vegetation samples. We also found clear significant positive correlations between excreta and caterpillars for Ag, As, Hg and Pb and between feathers and caterpillars for As and Pb. Our data suggest that excreta are a good monitor for the presence and concentrations of non-essential metals in the food and the environment of passerine birds.     

Ecological restoration of mine degraded soils,with emphasis on metal contaminated soils

This paper reviews the ecological aspects of mined soil restoration, with special emphasis on maintaining a long-term sustainable vegetation on toxic metal mine sites. The metal mined soils are man-made habitats which are very unstable and will become sources of air and water pollution. Establishment of a vegetation cover is essential to stabilize the bare area and to minimize the pollution problem. In addition to remediate the adverse physical and chemical properties of the sites, the choice of appropriate vegetation will be important. Phytostabilization and phytoextraction are two common phytoremediation techniques in treating metal-contaminated soils, for stabilizing toxic mine spoils, and the removal of toxic metals from the spoils respectively. Soil amendments should be added to aid stabilizing mine spoils, and to enhance metal uptake accordingly.     

Mining, the environment and the treatment of mine effluents

The environmental impact of mining on the ecosystem, including land, water and air, has become an unavoidable reality. Guidelines and regulations have been promulgated to protect the environment throughout mining activities from start-up to site decommissioning, in particular, the occurrence of acid mine drainage (AMD), due to oxidation of sulfide mineral wastes, has become the major area of concern to many mining industries during operations and after site decommissioning. AMD is characterised by high acidity and a high concentration of sulfates and dissolved metals. If it cannot be prevented or controlled, it must be treated to eliminate acidity, and reduce heavy metals and suspended solids before release to the environment. This paper discusses conventional and new methods used for the treatment of mine effluents, in particular the treatment of AMD.     

Application of principal component analysis for the estimation of source of heavy metal contamination in surface sediments from the Rybnik Reservoir

The concentrations of metals, loss of ignition and nutrient (N, P) were determined in the bottom sediments of the Rybnik Reservoir (southern Poland). The mean concentrations of the metals in the bottom sediments were: Cd 25.8 microgram/g, Cu 451.7 microgram/g, Zn 1583.4 microgram/g, Ni 71.1 microgram/g, Pb 118.6 microgram/g, Cr 129.8 microgram/g, Fe 38782 microgram/g and Mn 2018.7 microgram/g. The bottom sediments are very heavily loaded with zinc, manganese, copper, nickel, phosphorus and lead (percentage enrichment factor), and cadmium, phosphorus and zinc (index of geoaccumulation). The increase of cadmium, lead, nickel and zinc concentrations was connected with the inflow of the contaminated water of the river Ruda and long-range transport. The contamination of the reservoir with copper and manganese resulted mainly from atmospheric precipitation. The variability of the bottom sediment loading with metals during the investigations was affected in the first place by changes in the concentration of iron, but also those elements whose concentrations in the bottom sediment were elevated compared to the concentrations in shale--cadmium, nickel and lead.     

Concentration, size distribution, and dry deposition rate of particle-associated metals in the Los Angeles region

Daily averaged atmospheric concentrations and dry deposition fluxes of particulate metals were measured seasonally at six urban sites and one non-urban coastal site in the Los Angeles region using a conventional total suspended particulate matter (TSP) filter, surrogate surface deposition plates, and a Noll Rotary Impactor (NRI), which provides information about particle size distribution in four size ranges above 6 μm. With the exception of the non-urban site, particulate metal concentrations and deposition fluxes were remarkably uniform spatially and temporally. At all sites there were significant metal concentrations on particles greater than 10 μm, a commonly used upper limit for many air quality monitoring studies, and these large particles were estimated to be responsible for most of the deposited mass of metals. Annual averaged values of deposition rates measured with a surrogate surface were in good agreement with values estimated using theoretical deposition velocities in conjunction with measured size-segregated particle concentrations. Image analysis of particles deposited on NRI stage A, which collects all particles greater than 6 μm, indicated nighttime metal concentrations and deposition at the non-urban coastal site was higher than in the day time due to offshore advection of urban air associated with the diurnal land breeze. Measured enrichments of crustal elements and metals were correlated, indicating efficient mixing of natural and anthropogenic material from different sources, hypothesized to be the result of cyclical resuspension and deposition of dust by moving vehicles and wind.     

Incineration and human health

After pollutants from an incineration facility disperse into the air, some people close to the facility may be exposed directly through inhalation or indirectly through consumption of food or water contaminated by deposition of the pollutants from air to soil, vegetation, and water. For metals and other pollutants that are very persistent in the environment, the potential effects may extend well beyond the area close to the incinerator. Persistent pollutants can be carried long distances from their emission sources, go through various chemical and physical transformations, and pass numerous times through soil, water, or food.     

Metal accumulation in soil arthropods in relation to micro-nutrients

Nine species of soil arthropod collected at two sites of different pollution levels were compared for concentrations of seven different elements (Ca, Cd, Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb, Zn) and correlations between the different elements were calculated. Significant effects of site on element concentrations of the animals were found for cadmium, iron, manganese and zinc, whereas calcium, copper and lead concentrations showed no significant difference between the sites. Significant differences between the species were found for all metal. The pattern of accumulation was comparable for some of the metals. Correlations were found between calcium, iron, manganese and lead concentrations and between zinc and cadmium concentrations of the species. No significant correlations were found for copper. The study showed that species can not be easily categorised as accumulators or non-accumulators; the pattern depends on the metal.     

Occurrence of Eleven Metals in Airborne Participates and in Surficial Materials

The amounts of eleven metals in urban airborne particulate matter samples collected in the United States from 1965 to 1974 (urban and nonurban) are described in two frames of reference: 1) concentration per unit volume of air; and 2) relative abundance in the collected particulate matter compared with surficial materials (subsurface soils) of the continental U. S. If it may be assumed that airborne particulates of solely natural origin would contain these metals in proportions similar to those in uncontaminated subsurface soils, then instances of metals whose proportions in actual particulate samples exceed soil sample proportions may reasonably be ascribed to the influence of human activity. Lead and, tentatively, cadmium exhibit general and significant enrichment in airborne particulate matter above their natural abundances in U. S. soils. Vanadium exhibits enrichment primarily in the northeastern U. S. The enrichment of copper has been traced to contamination from the sampler's own motor. Beryllium, chromium, cobalt, iron, manganese, nickel, and titanium appear to occur in airborne particulates in proportions comparable with those to be expected in natural aeolian dusts.     

Floristic summary of plant species in the air pollution literature

A floristic summary and analysis was performed on a list of the plant species that have been studied for the effects of gaseous and chemical air pollutants on vegetation in order to compare the species with the flora of North America north of Mexico. The scientific names of 2081 vascular plant species were extracted from almost 4000 journal articles stored in two large literature databases on the effects of air pollutants on plants. Three quarters of the plant species studied occur in North America, but this was only 7% of the total North American flora. Sixteen percent and 56% of all North American genera and families have been studied. The most studied genus is Pinus with 70% of the North American species studied, and the most studied family is the grass family, with 12% of the species studied. Although Pinus is ranked 86th in the North American flora, the grass family is ranked third, indicating that representation at the family level is better than at the genus level. All of the top ten families in North America are represented in the top 20 families in the air pollution effects literature, but only one genus (Lupinus) in the top ten genera in North America is represented in the top thirteen genera in the air pollution literature.     

BIOLEFF: three databases on air pollution effects on vegetation

Three databases on air pollution effects on vegetation were developed by storing bibliographic and abstract data for technical literature on the subject in a free-form database program, 'askSam'. Approximately 4 000 journal articles have been computerized in three separate database files: BIOLEFF, LICHENS and METALS. BIOLEFF includes over 2 800 articles on the effects of approximately 25 gaseous and particulate pollutants on over 2 000 species of vascular plants. LICHENS includes almost 400 papers on the effects of gaseous and heavy metal pollutants on over 735 species of lichens and mosses. METALS includes over 465 papers on the effects of heavy metals on over 830 species of vascular plants. The combined databases include articles from about 375 different journals spanning 1905 to the present. Picea abies and Phaseolus vulgaris are the most studied vascular plants in BIOLEFF, while Hypogymnia physodes is the most studied lichen species in LICHENS. Ozone and sulfur dioxide are the most studied gaseous pollutants with about two thirds of the records in BIOLEFF. The combined size of the databases is now about 5.5 megabytes.     

Trace Metals in Upland Headwater Lakes in Ireland

Trace elements (n = 23) in Irish headwater lakes (n = 126) were investigated to determine their ambient concentrations, fractionation (total, dissolved, and non-labile), and geochemical controls. Lakes were generally located in remote upland, acid-sensitive regions along the coastal margins of the country. Total trace metal concentrations were low, within the range of natural pristine surface waters; however, some lakes (~20 %) had inorganic labile aluminum and manganese at levels potentially harmful to aquatic organisms. Redundancy analysis indicated that geochemical weathering was the dominant controlling factor for total metals, compared with acidity for dissolved metals. In addition, many metals were positively correlated with dissolved organic carbon indicating their affinity (or complexation) with humic substances (e.g., aluminum, iron, mercury, lead). However, a number of trace metals (e.g., aluminum, mercury, zinc) were correlated with anthropogenic acidic deposition (i.e., non-marine sulfate), suggesting atmospheric sources or elevated leaching owing to acidic deposition. As transboundary air pollution continues to decline, significant changes in the cycling of trace metals is anticipated.