Public policy as a part of transforming energy systems: framing bioenergy in Finnish energy policy

Government interventions have been identified as important for energy systems change, because they can either facilitate or hinder transitions toward more sustainable energy systems. This article analyses how bioenergy options have been framed in Finnish policy strategies and how the framing has changed over time. The empirical material includes the content of 15 government programmes and nine national energy/climate strategies. On the basis of this assessment, both the link between bioenergy framings in strategies and the actual transformation of Finnish bioenergy systems are explored.On the basis of bioenergy framings, the development of energy policy can be divided into three phases: support for domestic energy sources in 1979-1991, support for wood- and industry-based bioenergy in 1992-1998, and diversified bioenergy in the context of climate change in 1999-2010. For two decades, primarily wood-based bioenergy was supported despite alternative technological developments occurring elsewhere. After the turn of the millennium, the importance of climate policy increased and alternative bioenergy sources were raised on the government policy agenda, also resulting in some new policy instruments. Rather than adopting a visionary outlook to guide system transformation, climate and energy policy has strengthened those technological options that have been selected elsewhere. If public policies are to enhance the shift toward low-carbon, sustainable energy systems, they would need to be more comprehensive, be more consistent over time, and emphasise energy use more.     

农村能源建设与持续农业

农村能源建设滞后制约着经济的发展，尤其是高效而稳定的持续农业的发展。本文从以沼气为纽带的生态农业出发，论述了农村能源建设是实现持续农业的重要前提，对农村整体具有经济，社会，生态效益。     

China''s energy, environment and policy perspective

This paper discusses the specific features of the energy in China, and addresses those key challenges in China is that the coexist of (1) higher total energy production and lower per capita level; (2) lower per capita energy resources level with unrational energy consumption structure; (3) lower energy utilization efficiency and higher energy conservation potential; and (4) unequal distribution of energy resources. It reviews the key environmental problems related to the feature of energy production and consumption. Based on the analysis, the author furthers addresses the policy and actions needed.     

Better regulation by new governance hybrids? Governance models and the reform of European chemicals policy

The EU is presently in a transition phase from environmental policy-making by law towards other governance approaches based upon networking, voluntary commitments, benchmarking and other forms of “soft law”. Those new governance approaches often claim to lead to “better regulation”, while adopting a more consensus-oriented and participatory style, taking economic aspects more seriously into account, allowing for more flexibility and autonomy for the private sector and Member States alike, mobilising a broader knowledge base or adopting more integrated and holistic approaches than previous sectoralised and compartmentalised policies.While the limitations of traditional regulatory approaches are widely accepted and cited, it is far from evident, that “new modes of governance” have greater capacity to solve problems than the old ones. There is an argument, that “better regulation” might by synonymous to a withdrawal and weakening of the regulatory state and hence effectively of the aspirations and objectives of environmental policies.An interesting case for an approach, combining the strengths of the old and the new approaches is the ongoing reform of chemicals policies. While some observers claim, that the proposed directive, “REACH” might belong to the outdated category of overcomplex and bureaucratic regulation, a closer look shows that there are many new forms of governance in REACH. This mixture or old and new may open a more realistic and promising perspective on the reform of European policy-making.In our paper we assess the effects and the interplay of the combination of different modes of governance using the example of REACH. We are particularly concerned with the question in how far the representation of interests may change when new modes of governance are introduced.     

Microhydro electrification and climate change adaptation in Nepal: socioeconomic lessons from the Rural Energy Development Program (REDP)

This article explores the potential for microhydro installations in Nepal to improve adaptive capacity in addition to their ability to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. After explaining its methods of data collection—namely field research and research interviews—the article explores the climate change adaptation benefits of microhydro plants being promoted under the Renewable Energy Development Project (REDP). Besides displacing fossil fuels, in particular kerosene for lighting, microhydro electrification offers an effective way of improving community assets and bolstering social resilience (thereby enhancing the adaptive capacity of communities there). Our own survey of REDP project sites reveals how microhydro units have improved community income levels, equalized gender roles, enhanced access to education and information, and reduced migration patterns. The article concludes by highlighting three key lessons—the role of extensive community mobilization, proactive capacity building for efficient electricity use, and the need for comprehensiveness—for those wishing to adapt to climate change in other rural and developing economies.     

Pursuing an integrated development and climate policy framework in Africa: options for mainstreaming

Climate change presents a major threat to the prospects for sustained economic development in Africa. In spite of this, climate change concerns do not feature prominently in the implementation of national and regional development programmes. The present paper identifies the likely trade-offs and synergies that may emerge from an integrated ‘development-climate’ approach to policy making. Also, the paper presents the case for the formulation and evaluation of an integrated policy approach based on four principle criteria, including; long-term environmental effectiveness, equity considerations, cost-effectiveness and the institutional compatibility of the policy combinations. What is more? The paper suggests specific options for mainstreaming climate change adaptation and mitigation in various sectoral development agenda such as; agricultural intensification, poverty eradication, rural development, urban renewal, energy security of supply and trade. Given the wide divergence of socio-economic systems and the peculiar challenges faced by individual countries in the continent, further research is required on robust country-specific strategies for pursuing an integrated development-climate policy framework.     

A framework on interactions of climate and energy policy instruments

In this paper we analyze the concept of interactions between policy instruments addressing environmental, energy and climate change issues. Although discussion on such policies has been taking place for almost two decades, their interactions are not so sufficiently explored. Initially, we refer to literature on various types of interactions and we classify them. Furthermore, we construct a qualitative method that can assist policymakers in selecting an optimal policy mix. This method breaks down into numerous components, the areas where different policies interact, and facilitates the unveiling of potential overlaps and complementarities. These areas consist of categories as measure identification, objectives, scope, market arrangements, market flexibility, financing, technological parameters, timing, compliance parameters and institutional setup. In addition, it renders the possibility of combining different options and design elements of policies. Furthermore, a list of various criteria serves as an assessment tool for interactions, where a weighing factor and uncertainty parameters have been added, in order to produce an aggregate indicator of the ex-ante analysis of the policy mix selected. Through this method, we present a complete framework of discernment of diverse forms of environmental policy instruments.     

Intensity and daily pattern of passenger vehicle use by region and class in China: estimation and implications for energy use and electrification

Given the explosive growth of the passenger vehicle market and energy demands in China, research on vehicle-use intensity and driver-travel patterns is critical for better assessing travel demand and its implications for alternative fuel vehicles, energy security, and environmental policies. This study attempts to estimate annual vehicle kilometers traveled (AVKT) per privately-owned passenger vehicle and their daily distance patterns by vehicle class and geographic region. The data sample from a survey consists of 169,292 privately owned passenger vehicles, made by 177 car manufacturers during 2003–2018, running in 82 cities from 27 provincial regions. The log-transformed average AVKT is estimated to be 12,377 km with 95% probability ranging from 5490 to 28,579 km. The investigation reveals that vehicles from South China have the highest AVKT at 13,320 km. Generally, vehicles in small cities have higher AVKT than in big cities, except AVKT of tier 1 cities being higher. Another trend is that more expensive or larger vehicles tend to be driven more. A model is fitted for estimating AVKT based on region, city type, automaker, price range, and certain vehicle features including class and age. Data of daily commuting distances in recent years are also analyzed. The average daily commuting distances typically range from 21 to 28 km. Using the validated Gamma distribution method, daily distance distributions are specified for different regions. It is found that 99% of the daily driving distance is no more than 88.0–112.0 km, depending on region. Utility factors of plug-in electric vehicles are also estimated to be much higher than those based on driving data in the USA. These findings suggest global mitigations strategies on vehicle fuel use, electrification, and greenhouse gases should consider vehicle-use intensity at the regional level.

     

The roles of computer models in the environmental policy life cycle

In this article, we identify four typical roles played by computer models in environmental policy-making, and explore the relationship of these roles to different stages of policy development over time. The four different roles are: models as eye-openers, models as arguments in dissent, models as vehicles in creating consensus and models for management. A general environmental policy life cycle is used to assess the different roles models play in the policy process. The relationship between the roles of models and the different stages of the policy life cycle is explored with a selection of published accounts of computer models and their use in environmental policy-making.     

新型投融资体制下的珠海环保产业

进入上世纪90年代以来，随着珠海市经济快速发展，环境保护工作力度的不断加大，珠海市通过推行清洁生产，从源头控制污染等措施，使越来越多的投资者纷纷将资金投入到环保产业，环保相关产业取得了较大发展。     

国外促进生物质能开发利用的立法政策及对我国的启示

<正>生物质能是蕴藏在生物质内的能量。生物质是地球上分布最广泛的物质之一,包括所有动物、植物、微生物及其排放、代谢的物质。因此,生物质能来源非常广泛,包括薪柴、牲畜粪便、制糖作物、城市垃圾和污水、水生植物等。与传统能源相比,生物质能具有分布广、种类多、价格低、可再生、二氧化碳排放量低等优势,它是唯一可运输并储存的可再生能源。目前,生物燃气、生物液体燃料等生物质能源在德国、巴西、美国等国家已实现规模化生产和应用,生物质能已经成为仅次于煤炭、石油和天然气的世界第四大     

REACh as a paradigm shift in chemical policy – responsive regulation and behavioural models

The European Union is changing its general approach to chemical regulation by introducing the new programme REACh, i.e. Registration, Evaluation and Authorisation of Chemicals. In this paper we argue that REACh is nothing less than a paradigm shift in the regulatory approach of the EU. Generally speaking, REACh places all major responsibilities with firms rather than on administrative bodies. At the same time, this policy is far from undemanding: companies marketing substances falling under REACh must ensure that along the production chain dangers to health and environment will be mastered throughout all intermediate and final users of the substance or the product containing the substance. In other words, producers of REACh chemicals must start downstream information and communication processes along the entire production chain to meet the requirements of the directive, which is stipulating both gathering the risk-related information and implementing appropriate risk-reduction measures. This paper aims to identify the major changes in the policy approach induced by REACh, and the type of behavioural model necessary to give a well-founded prognosis.In this paper we describe briefly responsive regulation as the new underlying paradigm of regulation as opposed to hierarchical regulation. From there we proceed to analyse the concept of self-responsibility in this context, and suggest adopting an agent-specific approach. In order to form expectations about the possible outcome of such regulation, behavioural models need to be well-defined for a systematic analysis of incentives imposed by REACh. We propose a behavioural model of homo oeconomicus institutionalis in order to allow cognitive limits and rule-following behaviour of individuals in complex situations. As can be seen, cognitive limits as well as rule-following behaviour are of paramount importance to highly complex regulations such as REACh. In conclusion, REACh demands not only a new paradigm of regulation, such as responsive regulation, but also a modified approach of behavioural analysis for prognosis, such as the concept of homo oeconomicus institutionalis.Further, the incentives facing agents regulated by REACh need to be analysed. Apparently, REACh does not sufficiently take into account that regulative approaches based on self-responsibility must be supported by adequate incentives, in order to reach the objectives.     

Adaptations to climate change,drought and desertification: local insights to enhance policy in southern Africa

The impacts of climate change, drought and desertification are closely interlinked, and most acutely experienced by populations whose livelihoods depend principally on natural resources. Given the increases in extreme weather events projected to affect the Southern Africa region, it is essential to assess how household and community-level adaptations have been helped or hindered by institutional structures and national policy instruments. In particular, there is a need to reflect on efforts related to the United Nations’ environmental conventions to ensure that policies support the maintenance of local adaptations and help retain the resilience of socio-economic and environmental systems. This paper examines three interlinked drivers of adaptation: climate change, desertification and drought, assessing the extent to which international and national policy supports local adaptive strategies in three countries in southern Africa. We show that while common ground exists between desertification and climate change adaptations at the policy level, they are insufficiently mainstreamed within broader development approaches. Similarly, there are some overlaps between policy-driven and autonomous local adaptations, but the mutually supportive links between them are poorly developed. Further efforts to integrate local adaptation strategies within policy could increase local resilience to environmental change, while also contributing to wider development goals.     

Renewable energy resources and technologies in Nigeria: present situation, future prospects and policy framework

Nigeria is endowed with abundant energy resources, both conventional and renewable, whichprovide her with immense capacity to develop an effective national energy plan. However, introduction of renewable energyresources into the nation's energy mix have implications on itsenergy budget. The national energy supply system has been projected intothe future using MARKAL, a large scale linear optimization model.However, this model may not be absolutely representative of the highlynon-linear future of renewable energy. Results of the model reveal that under onlya least cost constraint, only large hydro power technology is the prominentcommercial renewable energy technology in the electricity supply mix of thecountry. Despite the immense solar energy potentials available, solar electricity generation is attractive only under severeCO2 emissions mitigation of the nation's energy supply system. Similarly, the penetration of small-scale hydro power technology in theelectricity supply mix is favoured only under CO₂ emissionsconstraints. Due to economy of scale, large hydropower technology takes the lion share of all the commercial renewableenergy resources share for electricity generation under any CO₂emissions constraint. These analyses reveal that some barriers exist to thedevelopment and penetration of renewable energy resources electricity production in Nigeria's energy supplysystem. Barriers and possible strategies to overcome them arediscussed. Intensive efforts and realistic approachtowards energy supply system in the country will have to be adopted inorder to adequately exploit renewable energy resources and technologiesfor economic growth and development.     

Linking the emissions trading schemes of Europe and China - Combining climate and energy policy instruments

Both Europe and China have announced targets for greenhouse gas emissions reduction and renewable energy development. To achieve their emissions targets, Europe has introduced emissions trading scheme (ETS) since 2005 and China has planned to establish a national ETS in 2015. We assess the impact of a joint Europe-China ETS when both climate and energy policy instruments are simulated in a multiregional general equilibrium model. Our results show that a joint ETS markedly increases total carbon emissions from fossil fuels even though global mitigation costs are reduced. Moreover, a joint ETS helps China achieve its renewable energy target, but for Europe, it works opposite. While the renewable energy target does not help Europe achieve additional abatement, the renewable energy target in China reduces mitigation costs and emissions, and increases renewable energy consumption and sales of carbon allowances. Financial transfer through a joint ETS remains marginal compared to China’s demand for renewable energy subsidies. We conclude that as long as an absolute emissions cap is missing in China, a joint ETS is not attractive for mitigation and China’s renewable energy target can reduce emissions.     

Rural energy transitions in developing countries: a case of the Uttam Urja initiative in India

In most developing countries, at the household level, traditional burning of biomass or use of inefficient technologies for domestic applications like lighting is common, triggering concerns related to fuel or technology switching. The paper focuses on opportunities to promote cleaner energy options through development of value chains delivering improved energy efficiency and access in developing countries. We discuss the example of Uttam Urja, a field project involving the dissemination of photovoltaic lighting technologies in rural areas of India. We focus on the challenges of introducing radical innovations into the residential energy sector in developing countries. For the purpose of this paper the Uttam Urja project is conceptualized as an ‘experiment’ and analysed using the Strategic Niche Management (SNM) framework. The paper emphasizes that to effect socio-technical transitions to clean energy options on the ground, it is desirable to focus on technology customization and innovative financing to cater to the needs and concerns of end users.     

新税收政策对再生资源行业的影响及调整建议

《财政部国家税务总局关于再生资源增值税政策的通知》（财税[2008]157号）下发后,为了贯彻文件精神,明确退税程序,部分省市陆续出台了再生资源增值税退税审核审批操作办法。经实践运作,并针对我国再生资源行业现状、税收政策的历史演变,归纳总结出新税收政策对再生资源行业带来的多方面影响,并提出相应调整建议。     

关于再生资源增值税新政策实施后所带来的突出问题及建议

结合湖北省武汉市再生资源回收、经营企业的实际情况,论述了自2009年1月1日再生资源行业开始实行新的税收政策以来所面临的突出问题,即企业难以取得进项抵扣发票,税负增加过重;先征后退,税款占压资金,影响资金周转,增加资金成本;起初库存不能计算进项税额,加大库存商品亏损。并针对上述问题,提出具体建议。     

Conducting and delivering integrated research to influence land-use policy: salinity policy in Australia

Researchers can find the process of engaging with policy to be both rewarding and frustrating. In the context of land-use policy, we discuss various aspects of the research-policy nexus, including the various influences of research and policy on land use, the adoption of research results by policy makers, differences between policy and research, and the roles that researchers can play in policy. We present a case study from Australia in which a range of research into land use was integrated to develop an investment framework for policy makers and natural resource managers. We conclude that, to enhance their influence on land-use policy, researchers should strive to: understand the policy maker's perspective, practice excellent communication, be solution oriented, find a champion, avoid appearances of vested interest, and be simple, patient, persistent, resilient, responsive and timely.