Bisphenol A (BPA) in China: A review of sources,environmental levels,and potential human health impacts

Bisphenol A (BPA), identified as an endocrine disruptor, is an industrially important chemical that is used as a raw material in the manufacture of many products such as engineering plastics (e.g., epoxy resins/polycarbonate plastics), food cans (i.e., lacquer coatings), and dental composites/sealants. The demand and production capacity of BPA in China have grown rapidly. This trend will lead to much more BPA contamination in the environmental media and in the general population in China. This paper reviews the current literature concerning the pollution status of BPA in China (the mainland, Hong Kong, and Taiwan) and its potential impact on human health. Due to potential human health risks from long-term exposure to BPA, body burden of the contaminant should be monitored.     

Environmental mercury contamination in China: sources and impacts

This review article focused on the current status of mercury (Hg) contamination in different ecological compartments in China, and their possible environmental and health impacts, focusing on some major cities. Mercury emission from non-ferrous metals smelting (especially zinc smelting), coal combustion and miscellaneous activities (of which battery and fluorescent lamp production and cement production are the largest), contributed about 45%, 38% and 17%, respectively, to the total Hg emission based on the data of 1999. Mercury contamination is widespread in different ecological compartments such as atmosphere, soil and water. There is evidence showing bioaccumulation and biomagnification of Hg in aquatic food chains, with higher concentrations detected in carnivorous fish. In terms of human exposure to Hg, fish consumption is the major exposure pathway for residents living in coastal cities such as Hong Kong, but inhalation may be another major source, affecting human health in areas with severe atmospheric Hg, such as Guiyang City (Guizhou Province). The first case study indicated that after closure of the acetic acid plant 20 years at Songyuan City (Jilin Province), 16.7% of residents' hair still contained Hg concentration in excess of 1 mg/kg (the reference dosage value, RfD set by USEPA). The second case study indicated that the male residents of Hong Kong who consumed more than four or more meals of fish per week tended to contain higher Hg in their hair, which was linked to their subfertility. There is also increasing evidence showing that skin disorders and autism in Hong Kong children are related to their high Hg body loadings (hair, blood and urine), through prenatal methyl Hg exposure. There seems to be an urgent need to identify the sources of Hg, speciation and concentrations in different ecological compartments, which may lead to high body loadings in human beings. Adverse health effects of residents living in places with a higher background level of Hg, due to long-term exposure to chronic levels of Hg through oral intake should not be overlooked.     

Systematic review of pentachlorophenol occurrence in the environment and in humans in China: Not a negligible health risk due to the re-emergence of schistosomiasis

Pentachlorophenol (PCP) has been widely used for killing snails in areas of China where schistosomiasis is epidemic. With the re-emergence of schistosomiasis, the warranted production and consumption of PCP has inevitably resulted in persistent environmental contamination by it and its impurities, polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs). This study aimed to evaluate the contamination status and human burden of PCP and its impurities (PCDD/Fs) in China, considering the previous epidemic and re-emergence of schistosomiasis. We searched studies relevant to PCP occurrence in the environment and in humans in China. Data on snail elimination areas were included to estimate PCP consumption. Relevant publications were analyzed to distinguish PCDD/Fs contamination from PCP usage. PCP contamination was detected ubiquitously in various environmental media and in human samples; environmental levels were generally low, with the exception of some hot spots. In schistosomiasis-epidemic areas, there were significantly higher PCP levels in the environment and in humans than in control areas. Spatial disparities indicated the consistency between serious schistosomiasis epidemic areas and hot spots of PCP contamination. The data suggest an increased trend in PCP contamination of the environment. Specific PCDD/Fs contamination from PCP usage existed even at low environmental levels. The occurrence of PCP in the environment and in humans positively correlated with the epidemic of schistosomiasis. Thyroid-disrupting effects and cancer risk caused by PCP and PCDD/Fs even at low environmental levels in China's schistosomiasis-epidemic areas are of concern.     

Antibiotics in the aquatic environments: A review of the European scenario

The discovery of antibiotics is considered one of the most significant scientific achievements of the 20th century, revolutionizing both human and veterinary medicine. However, antibiotics have been recently recognized as an emerging class of environmental contaminants since they have been massively administrated in humans and animals and persist in the environment through a complex vicious cycle of transformation and bioaccumulation. The diffusion of antibiotics in the environment, particularly in natural water systems, contributes to the development and global dissemination of antibiotic resistance. This phenomenon is one of the most important challenges to the health care sector in the 21st century. As a result, studies on the occurrence, fate, and effects of antibiotics in European aqueous environments have increased in the last years. Nevertheless, their potential aquatic ecotoxicity and human toxicity via environmental exposure routes remain unknown. Consequently, antibiotics are not regulated through the current European environmental water quality standards, which requires evidence concerning their widespread environmental contamination and intrinsic hazard. In this context, this literature review summarizes the state of knowledge on the occurrence of antibiotics in the different aqueous environmental systems across the Europe, as reported since 2000. Relating this subject to antibiotic consumption and their dynamic behavior in the environment, the acquired insights provide an improved understanding on aquatic pollution by antibiotics to outline the European scenario. Moreover, it addresses challenges, prospects for future research, and typical topics to stimulate discussion.     

Sources and environmental behaviors of Dechlorane Plus and related compounds — A review

Although Dechlorane Plus (DP) has been used as a polychlorinated flame retardant for almost half a century, its detection in the environment was not reported until 2006. The subsequent intensive research has confirmed its global ubiquity. A few reviews have presented the properties, analytical methods and environmental occurrence of DP and related compounds in the past several years. The present review emphasizes on the environmental behavior of DP isomers which is assessed by the variation of the isomer ratio of DP in various matrices. Other aspects including the analytical methods, emission sources, general environmental occurrence and bioaccumulation of DP are also summarized.In this review, three typical emission sources in the environment are categorized after introducing the measurement method of DP. The temporal-spatial distribution is then evaluated at the global scale, which provides an integrated representation of the environmental occurrence of DP and potential impact on the human health and ecosystems. The variations of DP isomer ratio in various matrices reinforce its source related distribution and their stereoselective bioaccumulation. Thereafter, DP related compounds and dechlorinated analogs are briefly summarized in regards to their occurrence in various matrices, suggesting their ubiquity in the environment and bioavailability. Further studies are required to better assess the exposures and toxicological effects of DP and its analogs. A special concern is the serious contamination in e-waste recycling areas in developing countries, where long-term monitoring data on the association of DP exposure and adverse effects to human health and ecosystems is urgently needed.     

江阴市典型河流沉积物重金属污染和风险评价

在摸清河流表层沉积物重金属(Cu、Zn、Pb、Cr、As)含量的基础上,利用综合污染指数和地累积指数评价其污染状况,计算潜在生态风险和人体健康风险。结果表明,江阴市河流沉积物已经受到重金属污染企业和城市径流双重影响,Cu、Zn、Pb峰值在汛期,As、Cr峰值在非汛期;污染负荷指数和地累积指数评价结果显示非汛期污染略轻,地累积指数法引入背景波动参数而使其评价结果较乐观。重金属潜在生态风险都为轻微风险级别;致癌风险处于10~(-3)数量级,非致癌风险数量级为10~(-7),致癌风险为人体健康风险主要承担者。潜在生态风险汛期高,人体健康风险非汛期高,这可能是重金属元素对致癌风险以及生态风险的贡献不同所致。     

Contributions of sustainability science to the study of environmental health problems

From the ontological point of view, environmental health problems do not differ from problems of unsustainability. This leads us to think that sustainability science could contribute to resolve important questions that studies on environmental health are not resolving. A literature review was made in order to analyse the scope and limitations of studies on environmental health problems. Based on the characteristics of environmental health studies, we highlighted some examples of questions that are being ignored and analysed four contributions that sustainability science could make to solve them. These contributions come from three key components of sustainability science: (1) the unit of analysis—social–ecological systems, (2) a theory—resilience theory and, specifically, social–ecological resilience, (3) and the approaches of complex systems and transdisciplinarity. From a sustainability science perspective, four contributions could be made: environmental health problems are redefined as social–ecological systems; environmental health is assumed to be the result of adaptation processes; the environment and society are recognized as systems, not as matrices of factors; and human action acquires content and structure and, in turn, explains the behaviour of environmental health problems.     

Shifting role of ecology in solving global environmental problems: selected practical tools

As environmental issues changed its focus from pollution and endangered species to fulfilling basic human needs, such as health, education, shelter, sanitation, hygiene, on the one hand and social justice on the other hand, it widened in its scope. People questioned about adequacy of ecological knowledge in solving daily questions in their life, and also contribution of their values, objective life situations and idea of quality of life for ecological well-being. Two core and complimentary values strongly emerged from the concept of sustainable development; namely environmental protection and justice. Unfortunately, there is lack of awareness on dimensions of human life and its linkages with the wider environment. To combine the values, dimensions of human life and its linkages with external environment, fundamental changes in human behaviour for human development is required. Present article reflects on dimensions of life, essential skills and practical tools for environmental protection and human development.     

生态环境损害责任确立的理论基础研究——以马克思主义生态文明观为视角

中共中央办公厅和国务院办公厅印发的《生态环境损害赔偿制度改革试点方案》已经明确提出了生态环境损害的赔偿问题,对生态环境本身造成损害需要承担责任将成为中国法治时代又一个崭新的命题,对生态环境造成损害担责因何而生、又因何而立?生态环境损害责任确立的理论根据到底是什么?笔者认为只有明确生态环境损害责任确立的理论基础,才能促进生态损害赔偿制度的有效构建与救济机制的健康运行,才能为"美丽中国"建设提供法治保障。本文以马克思主义生态文明观为研究视角,探讨了生态文明观作为中国生态环境损害责任确立的理论基础之科学性与合理性。本文研究发现,马克思主义生态文明观不仅扫清了环境损害责任确立的思想和认识障碍,而且回应了个别学者对环境损害责任成立的质疑,为环境损害责任的确立奠定了思想和理论基础;不仅如此,生态文明观还为环境损害责任的实施提供了政治、经济、文化、技术和法治保障,是生态文明观孕育了环境损害责任。本文进一步分析了生态文明观之所以能够孕育环境损害责任制度的原因,是因为生态文明观与环境损害责任有诸多内在的共同性:生态文明观与环境损害责任之间同根同源,都起源于生态环境危机的时代背景,直接目的就是为了实现环境保护,共同的手段就是环境法治,最深层次的共同价值追求是实现人与自然的和谐共生。中国未来生态环境损害责任制度的建立与运行,应当自觉坚持以马克思主义生态文明观为指导,自觉将马克思主义生态文明观作为思想指南和理论渊源。     

全氟辛烷磺酰基化合物水生生态风险和人体健康风险评价

全氟辛烷磺酰基化合物（Perfluorooctanesulfonate,PFOS ）广泛用于工农业生产,PFOS可通过不同的迁移路径迁移到大气、水和土壤等环境介质中。研究表明,PFOS是一种新的持久性有机物污染物,具有毒性,可通过食物链富集。2006年PFOS被欧盟议会和部长理事会列为限制销售和使用物质。本文引用中国沿海、亚洲海域和美国部分水域的PFOS暴露浓度数据,采用商值法对PFOS的水生生态环境风险进行了评价,建立了5 种因素水平的数学模型,并应用此数学模型对PFOS的人体健康风险进行了评价。结果表明我国部分地区和亚洲沿海PFOS的水生生态风险低于美国水域,亚洲沿海、我国部分地区以及美国部分城市水体中PFOS个人风险大小依次是我国部分地区<亚洲沿海<美国部分城市。     

Photodegradation characteristics of PPCPs in water with UV treatment

The degradation characteristics of PPCPs commonly found in surface water under UV treatment were examined for 30 kinds of PPCPs using a UV/Lamp1 that emits light at a wavelength of 254 nm and a UV/Lamp2 that emits light at 254 nm and 185 nm in pure water. When a UV dose of some 230 mJ/cm² was introduced to the 30 PPCPs, photodegradation rates of about > 3% (theophylline) to 100% (diclofenac) and about > 15% (clarithromycin) to 100% (diclofenac) were observed for UV/Lamp1 and UV/Lamp2, respectively. This study also showed that UV/Lamp2, which photolyzes water molecules and generates OH radicals, is more effective for PPCP removal than UV/lamp1. It was postulated that the degradation rates of sulfamethoxazole, sulfamonomethoxine, sulfadimethoxine and sulfadimidine, all, including sulfamethoxazole, derived from sulfanilamide, under UV/Lamp1 resulted mainly from the bond-breaking reactions occurring between –SO₂– and its side atoms, the C–S bond and the N–H bond. Some PPCPs with amide bonds, such as cyclophosphamide and DEET, were highly resistant to photodegradation by UV/Lamp1. AOPs (Advanced oxidation processes) such as the UV/H₂O₂ or UV/O₃ processes should therefore be considered for their potential to remove these substances effectively.     

Environmental health impacts of feeding crops to farmed fish

Half of the seafood consumed globally now comes from aquaculture, or farmed seafood. Aquaculture therefore plays an increasingly important role in the global food system, the environment, and human health. Traditionally, aquaculture feed has contained high levels of wild fish, which is unsustainable for ocean ecosystems as demand grows. The aquaculture industry is shifting to crop-based feed ingredients, such as soy, to replace wild fish as a feed source and allow for continued industry growth. This shift fundamentally links seafood production to terrestrial agriculture, and multidisciplinary research is needed to understand the ecological and environmental health implications. We provide basic estimates of the agricultural resource use associated with producing the top five crops used in commercial aquaculture feed. Aquaculture's environmental footprint may now include nutrient and pesticide runoff from industrial crop production, and depending on where and how feed crops are produced, could be indirectly linked to associated negative health outcomes. We summarize key environmental health research on health effects associated with exposure to air, water, and soil contaminated by industrial crop production. Our review also finds that changes in the nutritional content of farmed seafood products due to altered feed composition could impact human nutrition. Based on our literature reviews and estimates of resource use, we present a conceptual framework describing the potential links between increasing use of crop-based ingredients in aquaculture and human health. Additional data and geographic sourcing information for crop-based ingredients are needed to fully assess the environmental health implications of this trend. This is especially critical in the context of a food system that is using both aquatic and terrestrial resources at unsustainable rates.     

环境暴露风险评价在大黄堡湿地自然保护区中的应用

我国目前在区域环境质量评价方面存在一定缺陷,常规评价指标无法表征特征污染物对区域生态环境及人体健康造成的暴露风险。以环境暴露风险理论为基础,对大黄堡湿地自然保护区内的大气、水及土壤构建复合环境要素综合评价模型,评价结果显示保护区的综合判别值为12.68×10-5 a-1,高于国际辐射防护委员会(ICRP)推荐的最大可接受值1.0×10-5 a-1,且地域差异比较明显,其中保护区北部农药厂周边地区潜在健康风险最高、东八里庄附近次之、而后蒲棒村周边相对较小。最终根据评估区域内环境暴露风险评价结果提出具有针对性的防范和治理措施,为保护区环境暴露风险的预警和管理提供决策依据。     

Ecological Function Zoning for Environmental Planning at Different Levels

Environmental planning at different levels has been called for by environmental departments in China during last years to integrate environment consideration to economic development. Based on the accomplished environmental planning practice in Xiamen China, the paper suggests a general environmental planning process with ecological function zoning as its key steps, at the same time an effective method for ecological function zoning was formulated. The case studies of Dongfu suburban town environmental planning and Xiamen eco-city conceptual planning indicate that scientifically sound results of ecological function zoning can contribute to improving not only the adaptability and acceptability of environmental planning, also the environmental management and the decision-making. The experience shows that the ecological function zoning methods should be applied according to the principles of adaptive management, resource-based and community-based, so that it can integrate science into decision-making process, avoiding both narrow-minded viewpoints of planners and natural resource use conflicts among variety of stakeholders. Problems to be resolved in the future are also pointed out in the ending part.     

PestScreen: a screening approach for scoring and ranking pesticides by their environmental and toxicological concern

A chemical ranking and scoring method entitled PestScreen has been developed as a screening tool to provide a relative assessment of pesticide hazards to human health and the environment. The method was developed to serve as an analytical tool in screening and identification of pesticides of environmental concern used in agriculture. PestScreen incorporates both the toxic effects of pesticides and their fate and exposure characteristics in different compartments of the environment. This is done by combining measures of chemical toxicity pertaining to both human health and the environment with chemical release amounts and information on overall environmental persistence, long-range transport potential and human population intake fractions. Each hazard measure is scored and weighted and finally combined with the pesticide application dose to provide a single final indicator of relative concern (PestScore). Results for 217 pesticides are presented and the practical implementation is illustrated on behalf of three practical case studies.     

Impact of Growing Income Inequality on Sustainable Development in China： A Provincial-level Analysis

A growing body of literature has documented the rapidly increasing income disparities that accompanied China＇s economic growth in the 1980s and 1990s, and the driving factors behind this. Growing income inequality in its turn may have important implications for the accumulation of physical capital, human capital, and natural capital and as a consequence for sustainable economic development. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the potential impact of income inequality on savings, human resources and the environment in China. It starts with an overview of the different causal mechanisms through which income inequality may affect the accumulation of physical capital, human capital, and natural capital, and discusses to what extent these causal relationships may be relevant in the case of China. Next, provincial data for the year 2002 are used to explore the relationship between income inequality and different elements of sustainable development in China. It is found that income inequality does not affect aggregate savings levels. Rising inequality, however, contributes to lower health and possibly also to higher fertility levels. It also lowers the use of chemical fertilizers in agriculture and therefore is likely to reduce water pollution. Other types of environmental degradation are not affected.     

Chemical contaminants in feedlot wastes: concentrations, effects and attenuation

Commercial feedlots for beef cattle finishing are potential sources of a range of trace chemicals which have human health or environmental significance. To ensure adequate protection of human and environmental health from exposure to these chemicals, the application of effective manure and effluent management practices is warranted. The Australian meat and livestock industry has adopted a proactive approach to the identification of best management practices. Accordingly, this review was undertaken to identify key chemical species that may require consideration in the development of guidelines for feedlot manure and effluent management practices in Australia. Important classes of trace chemicals identified include steroidal hormones, antibiotics, ectoparasiticides, mycotoxins, heavy metals and dioxins. These are described in terms of their likely sources, expected concentrations and public health or environmental significance based on international data and research. Androgenic hormones such as testosterone and trenbolone are significantly active in feedlot wastes, but they are poorly understood in terms of fate and environmental implications. The careful management of residues of antibiotics including virginiamycin, tylosin and oxytetracycline appears prudent in terms of minimising the risk of potential public health impacts from resistant strains of bacteria. Good management of ectoparasiticides including synthetic pyrethroids, macrocyclic lactones, fluazuron, and amitraz is important for the prevention of potential ecological implications, particularly towards dung beetles. Very few of these individual chemical contaminants have been thoroughly investigated in terms of concentrations, effects and attenuation in Australian feedlot wastes.     

Environmental quality of transitional waters: the lagoon of Venice case study

The health status of European aquatic environments, including transitional waters such as coastal lagoons, is regulated by the Water Framework Directive (WFD), which requires the classification of the water bodies' environmental quality and the achievement of a good ecological status by 2015. In the Venice lagoon, a transitional water body located in the northeastern part of Italy, the achievement of a good ecological status is hampered by several anthropogenic and natural pressures, such as sediment and water chemical contamination, and sediment erosion. In order to evaluate the lagoon's environmental quality according to the WFD (i.e. 5 quality classes, from High to Bad), an integrated Weight-of-Evidence methodology was developed and applied to classify the quality of the lagoon water bodies, integrating biological, physico-chemical, chemical, ecotoxicological, and hydromorphological data (i.e. Lines of Evidence, LOE). The quality assessment was carried out in two lagoon habitat typologies (previously defined on the basis of morphological, sediment, and hydrodynamic characteristics) which were selected taking into account the ecological gradient from sea to land, and the differences in anthropogenic pressure and contamination levels. The LOE classification was carried out by using indicators scored by comparing site specific conditions to reference conditions measured in lagoon reference sites, or provided by local, national or European regulations (e.g. Environmental Quality Standards, EQS, for chemicals). Finally, the overall quality status for each water body was calculated by a probabilistic approach, i.e. by reporting the final result as the frequency distribution of quality classes. The developed procedure was applied by using data and information concerning selected LOE and collected from monitoring programs and research studies carried out in the last 15 years in the lagoon of Venice. A set of sampling stations characterized by spatially and temporally coherent information for each LOE was selected, and among these stations, potential reference sites for each water body typology were identified. The quality assessment highlighted that there are specific lagoon areas, especially those located near the industrially developed area, which are highly affected by anthropogenic activities, and that chemical contamination is one of the main pressures affecting ecological status (e.g. macro-benthonic biodiversity) in the Venice lagoon. The integrated quality assessment procedure that was developed provided a new tool supporting decision making, as well as lagoon assessment and management.     

Analysis of currently available data for characterising the risk of engineered nanomaterials to the environment and human health--lessons learned from four case studies

Production volumes and the use of engineered nanomaterials in many innovative products are continuously increasing, however little is known about their potential risk for the environment and human health. We have reviewed publicly available hazard and exposure data for both, the environment and human health and attempted to carry out a basic risk assessment appraisal for four types of nanomaterials: fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, metals, and metal oxides (ENRHES project 2009(1)). This paper presents a summary of the results of the basic environmental and human health risk assessments of these case studies, highlighting the cross cutting issues and conclusions about fate and behaviour, exposure, hazard and methodological considerations. The risk assessment methodology being the basis for our case studies was that of a regulatory risk assessment under REACH (ECHA, 2008(2)), with modifications to adapt to the limited available data. If possible, environmental no-effect concentrations and human no-effect levels were established from relevant studies by applying assessment factors in line with the REACH guidance and compared to available exposure data to discuss possible risks. When the data did not allow a quantitative assessment, the risk was assessed qualitatively, e.g. for the environment by evaluating the information in the literature to describe the potential to enter the environment and to reach the potential ecological targets. Results indicate that the main risk for the environment is expected from metals and metal oxides, especially for algae and Daphnia, due to exposure to both, particles and ions. The main risks for human health may arise from chronic occupational inhalation exposure, especially during the activities of high particle release and uncontrolled exposure. The information on consumer and environmental exposure of humans is too scarce to attempt a quantitative risk characterisation. It is recognised that the currently available database for both, hazard and exposure is limited and there are high uncertainties in any conclusion on a possible risk. The results should therefore not be used for any regulatory decision making. Likewise, it is recognised that the REACH guidance was developed without considering the specific behaviour and the mode of action of nanomaterials and further work in the generation of data but also in the development of methodologies is required.