岷江上游干旱河谷荒坡植物群落的稳定性分析

在岷江上游干旱河谷荒坡典型分布区选取10个典型样地进行采样调查,采用Whittaker β多样性指数、多物种间总体联结性、生态位宽度与生态位重叠、种百分数与累积相对频度比等指标,研究岷江上游干旱河谷荒坡植物群落的稳定性.结果表明,植物群落β多样性沿海拔梯度的变化非常小,反映物种的更替速率较慢;群落植物种群间总体联结性为显著正相关,说明群落处在较为稳定的生长阶段;垫状卷柏(Selaginella pulvinata)、高山韭(Allium sikkimense)和披针苔草(Carex lanceolat)3个生态位宽度值较大的优势种形成共优群落,植物种群间存在广泛的生态位重叠;种百分数与累积相对频度比为11.13/80.     

岷江百合的生物量分配对策及其海拔效应

生物量分配关系是植物生活史对策研究的核心内容,生境梯度对植物各组分生物量分配关系特别是营养与繁殖分配权衡具有重要影响.以集中分布于岷江上游的珍贵野生资源植物岷江百合(Lilium regale)为对象,采用标准化主轴估计(Standardized major axis estimation,SMA)和异速生长分析(Allometric scaling analysis)的方法,研究其各组分在海拔梯度上的分配比例及各组分之间的生物量分配关系.结果表明,岷江百合个体总生物量在数值上以中海拔较高(中海拔为100.45 g,高、低海拔分别为81.48 g,67.94 g),但各组分生物量百分比随着海拔变化呈现出不同的分配格局,总体上营养分配比例随着海拔升高而降低,繁殖分配比例随着海拔升高而升高.植株各组分(除叶外)生物量之间均呈现成比例(同速,共同斜率为0.963-1.127,P为0.416-0.985)生长关系.岷江百合全株、地上和地下部分的营养与繁殖分配均为同速生长关系(共同斜率为0.856-0.891,P为0.403-0.873);在营养分配一定的情况下,高海拔植株的繁殖分配比例较低海拔高.植物叶片生物量与总生物量呈现不成比例的生长关系(斜率大于1,P=0.575),可能原因是叶面积与叶生物量和总生物量分配的"报酬递减效应".因此,与群落尺度上的研究类似,单个物种各组分之间的生物量分配同速生长关系是普遍存在的;生境压力相对较大的高海拔物种的生物量分配对策倾向于繁殖分配高于营养分配.     

4个岷江柏种群的球果和种子形态特征及其地理空间差异

研究了我国四川和甘肃地区特有珍稀濒危植物岷江柏(Cupressus chenggiana S.Y.Hu)的4个地理种群球果和种子的形态特征，分析了不同生境条件下岷江柏的地理差异．结果表明：岷江柏球果呈椭球形，长(l)为1．5～2．5cm，宽(6)为1．5～2．0cm，重(m)为1．5～4．5g，球果鳞片数为8～11片，球果内种子粒数为40～70粒．在调查的4个岷江柏种群中，小金县种群的球果最大、球果内种子数最多，马尔康县种群和金川县种群的球果重量、球果内种子数居中，理县种群的球果最小、球果内种子数最少．讨论认为，4个种群球果和种子大小特征存在极显著差异，不同种群球果和种子的形态差异与岷江柏的种群遗传特征、气候特征和生境特征有着密切的关系．图3表7参25     

岷江柏各地理居群生长状况及气候因子分析

岷江柏是我国珍稀濒危保护植物，现主要集中分布在四川西部、甘肃南部的少数几个地区，由于全面调查的缺乏，对其了解和保护很少。样方调查及对岷江柏生长状况的研究表明，马尔康居群岷江柏生长好，群落结构稳定，物种多样性指数高，茂县、小金居群岷江柏生长状况较差，乔木层结构单一，物种多样性指数低。结合气候因子的研究，结果表明岷江柏适于生长在温度适中、雨量充沛、蒸发量小、干燥系数小、太阳辐射较优的环境中。岷江柏分布区的生长状况和气候因子的相关分析表明，总蒸发量、生长季蒸发量和干燥系数是影响岷江柏生长的主要气象因子，年均温、年降雨量对岷江柏地径和高无明显影响，年均温、年降雨量对岷江柏种群乔木层多样性和重要值有重要影响。这说明岷江柏主要生长指标不单单取决于降水的多少，而着重要考虑有多少能够存留在土壤中，也就是说岷江柏分布区的干燥系数大小，能综合反应降水与蒸发的动态关系。     

川西亚高山3个优势树种细根形态特征

林木细根(直径2 mm)拥有庞大而复杂的分枝系统,在森林生态系统养分循环过程中发挥重要作用,因此研究不同树种细根构型形态对树种地下生态位分离、共存和森林生态系统功能过程具有重要意义.选取川西亚高山3个优势树种——岷江冷杉(Abies faxoniana)、粗枝云杉(Picea asperate)和红桦(Butula albosinensis),采用挖掘法采集完整的细根根系,依据根序分级方法,测定细根形态参数(直径、根长、比根长和比表面积).结果表明:细根形态在不同根序间差异显著,3个树种细根直径、根长随根序的升高而升高,比根长和比表面积随序级的升高而降低.不同树种间细根形态也表现出极显著差异,岷江冷杉、粗枝云杉和红桦细直径变化范围分别为0.31-0.85 mm、0.29-0.65 mm和0.23-0.55 mm,两个针叶树种(岷江冷杉和粗枝云杉)直径与根长均大于红桦.红桦的比根长和比表面积则高于两个针叶树种.综上所述,低级别根吸收能力更强而构建消耗更低;红桦比岷江冷杉和粗枝云杉根系吸收能力更强.     

大气CO2浓度和温度升高对岷江冷杉（Abies faxoniana）幼苗针叶化学特性的影响

以6年生岷江冷杉(Abies faxoniana)幼苗为研究对象,利用控制环境生长室进行了2个生长季的大气CO2浓度倍增和增温(+2.2℃)处理,旨在探讨岷江冷杉幼苗针叶化学特性对CO2浓度倍增和增温的响应.结果表明:大气CO2浓度倍增对岷江冷杉幼苗针叶的叶绿素含量无显著影响,但降低了针叶N、P和纤维素含量,并增加了针叶可溶性糖和淀粉含量.增温显著降低了1年生针叶的叶绿素b含量,同时降低了当年生和1年生针叶的N、P和纤维素含量;显著提高了针叶的可溶性糖和淀粉含量.CO2浓度倍增和增温同时作用显著增加了针叶叶绿素含量,但降低了针叶N、P和纤维素含量,而对针叶可溶性糖和淀粉含量无显著影响.大气CO2浓度倍增和增温对针叶的叶绿素、N和碳水化合物含量有显著的交互作用.在大气CO2浓度倍增和增温条件下,岷江冷杉针叶化学性质将发生改变,可能影响针叶的生物化学过程和凋落物分解.     

旅游干扰对九寨沟原始森林岷江冷杉树干附生苔藓植物组成和结构的影响

附生苔藓植物是森林生物多样性的重要组分,对森林及其环境的质量有很好的指示作用.为了揭示旅游活动对森林及其环境的影响,调查了几寨沟原始森林景点内附近旅游活动频繁地段与未扰动地段原始林优势种岷江冷杉(Abies faxoniana)树干4个高度附生苔藓种类的组成、生物量和群落结构,采用独立样本t检验对苔藓层结构参数进行了差异性检验.结果表明:(1)冷杉树干附生苔藓物种组成在旅游活动频繁地段与未扰动地段有很大的差异.在旅游活动频繁地段,耐荫喜湿物种局部消失(重要值下降),耐干旱抗干扰的植物种群扩大;(2)旅游活动频繁地段树干附生苔藓植物的丰富度、盖度和生物量较未扰动地段小;(3)距地面较高的高度120 cm和180 cm处受到的干扰强度最大,基部的影响较小.旅游活动对附生苔藓植物的干扰主要为间接的环境影响,其机理还未充分认识,还需进一步研究.综合分析表明,旅游干扰影响了几寨沟的生态环境,需要进一步加强管理,控制游客数量和规范游客行为.图2表3参25     

岷江干旱河谷典型地段整地造林效果评估

长期以来通过整地造林去恢复重建植被已在横断山区干旱河谷广为采用,然而这样的实践是否能有效提高植被覆盖率并改善土壤水源涵养能力仍不清楚.选择岷江干旱河谷3个典型地段,调查了多年(7～16 a)后整地造林地上植被覆盖、土壤物理性质以及目的造林树种岷江柏(Cupressus chengiana S.Y. Hu)的保存、生长与结实状况,以评价干旱河谷乡土树种造林成效及造林后的生态效果.结果表明:(1)岷江柏在栽植多年后仍有大量死亡,保存率明显下降,造林16 a后仅为38%;(2)不同年代栽植的岷江柏在造林后2～6 a即开始旱现直径年生长量下降趋势;(3)造林带内乡土植被总盖度、灌木盖度、草本盖度、地衣苔藓盖度均低于保留带,因此等高线水平沟整地造林措施未能有效促进乡土植被发育;(4)造林带土壤水分物理性质也不如保留带,整地造林也没有有效改善土壤水源涵养能力.综合分析发现,整地造林多年后岷汀柏造林不仅没有达到岷江干旱河谷预期的生态恢复重建效果,甚至有加剧生态退化的趋势.因此认为:(1)规模化整地造林并不是有效的干旱河谷生态恢复和保护措施;(2)尽管岷江柏是乡土树种,但并不是干旱河谷植被恢复的适宜种.图3表3参29     

岷江上游干旱河谷荒坡植物群落种-面积曲线拟合及最小面积确定

采用由3种曲线方程拟合的群落种-面积曲线来确定岷江上游干旱河谷荒坡植物群落的最小取样面积,结果表明:对于岷江上游干旱河谷荒坡植物群落类型而言,利用方程S=c-ae-bA拟合所得的种-面积曲线好于其他方程.当比例因子ρ取0.6、0.7、0.8时,群落最小面积均小于2 m2,样方可设置为1 m × 2 m,即样地面积为2 m2,能够满足精度60%～80%的研究要求;当ρ取0.9时,群落最小面积均明显小于4 m2,样方可设置为2 m × 2 m,即样地面积为4 m2,能够满足精度90%的研究要求.     

岷江上游干旱河谷典型阳坡海拔梯度上土壤水分动态

结合气象观察和土壤质地的分析，监测和研究了岷江上游干旱河谷茂县段典型阳坡土壤水分动态．结果表明：1．土壤水分的季节变化可分为土壤水分亏缺期、土壤水分补偿期和土壤水分消退期．2．土壤含水量在旱季随土层深度的增加呈升高趋势，雨季中期出现相反的变化趋势，据变异系数可将土壤剖面分为剧变层、渐变层和相对稳定层．3．相同土层深度含水量随海拔高度的增加先升高后降低．4．降雨和土壤特性是影响岷江上游干旱河谷土壤水分的主要因素：降雨量与0～100cm土层平均含水量的相关系数达到极显著水平，降雨对土壤含水量的影响随土层深度增加而减弱；大于10mm的降雨对土壤水分的补充作用明显，气温及蒸发量较低时，连续的小于10mm的降雨对土壤水分也有一定补充作用，降水可到达50cm土层深度．以沙质粘壤土为主的土壤含水量远高于以砂壤土为主的土壤含水量．岷江上游干旱河谷造林时间在4月为宜，以沙壤土为主的地段穴深在45～60cm较好，以沙质粘壤土为主的地段穴深在60—70cm比较适宜．图3表3参15     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.     

Rapid,recurring, structured survey versus bioblitz for generating biodiversity data and analysis with a multispecies abundance model

A bioblitz inexpensively and quickly generates biodiversity data, but bioblitzes are often conducted with haphazard, unreplicated sampling. Results tend to be taxonomically, geographically, or temporally biased, lack metadata, and consist of lists of observed taxa that do not enable further analyses or correction for imperfect detection. A rapid, recurring, structured survey (RRSS) uses a structured sampling design and temporal and spatial replication to survey randomly selected sites on a conservation property. We participated in a loosely structured bioblitz and a subsequent RRSS at Big Canoe Creek Nature Preserve in Springville (St. Clair County), Alabama (USA) to compare observed richness derived from the 2 survey approaches. The RRSS data structure enabled us to fit models that accounted for imperfect detection to estimate abundances, occupancy probabilities, and habitat associations. The loosely structured bioblitz data could not be used in such models. We present a new integrated multispecies abundance model that we applied to avian RRSS data. Our model extension enables estimation for the community, employs data augmentation to estimate the number of undetected species, and incorporates covariates. The RRSS generated a more comprehensive and less biased list of observed taxonomic richness than the loosely structured bioblitz (e.g., 73 vs. 45 bird species and 104 vs. 63 insect families from the RRSS vs. loosely structured bioblitz, respectively). Models fit to the RRSS data identified seasonal patterns in avian community composition and allowed for estimation of habitat–occupancy relationships for insect taxa. The RRSS protocol has potential for broad transferability as a standardized, quick, and inexpensive way to inventory biodiversity and estimate ecological parameters while providing an outreach opportunity.     

Compliance with and ecosystem function of biodiversity offsets in North American and European freshwaters

Land-use change via human development is a major driver of biodiversity loss. To reduce these impacts, billions of dollars are spent on biodiversity offsets. However, studies evaluating offset project effectiveness that examine components such as the overall compliance and function of projects remain rare. We reviewed 577 offsetting projects in freshwater ecosystems that included the metrics project size, type of aquatic system (e.g., wetland and creek), offsetting measure (e.g., enhancement, restoration, and creation), and an assessment of the projects’ compliance and functional success. Project information was obtained from scientific and government databases and gray literature. Despite considerable investment in offsetting projects, crucial problems persisted. Although compliance and function were related to each other, a high level of compliance did not guarantee a high degree of function. However, large projects relative to area had better function than small projects. Function improved when projects targeted productivity or specific ecosystem features and when multiple complementary management targets were in place. Restorative measures were more likely to achieve targets than creating entirely new ecosystems. Altogether the relationships we found highlight specific ecological processes that may help improve offsetting outcomes.     

Sequestration of cucurbitacin analogs by New and Old World chrysomelid leaf beetles in the tribe Luperini

Summary Two South American polyphagous leaf beetles,Diabrotica speciosa andCerotoma arcuata, selectively accumulated the bitter tasting compound 23,24-dihydrocucurbitacin D in their body after ingesting root tissues of cucurbit plants. Similarly, three Asian Cucurbitaceae-feeding specialists in the genusAulacophora were found to sequester the same compound. Cucurbitacin analogs were shown to deter feeding by a bird predator, indicating an allomonal role for these compounds in cucurbitacin-associated chrysomelid leaf beetles both of New and Old Worlds. The strong affinity to cucurbitacins, selective sequestration of the analogs and consequent protection from predators suggested an ecological adaptation mechanism developed in common among these two geographically isolated subtribes in the Luperini.     

Effects of Controlled Fire and Livestock Grazing on Bird Communities in East African Savannas

Abstract: In East Africa fire and grazing by wild and domestic ungulates maintain savannas, and pastoralists historically set fires and herded livestock through the use of temporary corrals called bomas. In recent decades traditional pastoral practices have declined, and this may be affecting biodiversity. We investigated the effects of prescribed fires and bomas on savanna bird communities in East Africa during the first and second dry seasons of the year (respectively before and after the rains that mark the onset of breeding for most birds). We compared abundance, richness, and community composition on 9‐ha burned plots, recently abandoned bomas, and control plots in the undisturbed matrix habitat over a 3‐year period. Generally, recently burned areas and abandoned bomas attracted greater densities of birds and had different community assemblages than the surrounding matrix. The effects of disturbances were influenced by interactions between primary productivity, represented by the normalized difference vegetation index, and time. Bird densities were highest and a greater proportion of species was observed on burned plots in the months following the fires. Drought conditions equalized bird densities across treatments within 1 year, and individuals from a greater proportion of species were more commonly observed on abandoned bomas. Yearly fluctuations in abundance were less pronounced on bomas than on burns, which indicate that although fire may benefit birds in the short term, bomas may have a more‐lasting positive effect and provide resources during droughts. Several Palearctic migrants were attracted to burned plots regardless of rainfall, which indicates continued fire suppression may threaten their already‐declining populations. Most notably, the paucity of birds observed on the controls suggests that the current structure of the matrix developed as a result of fire suppression. Traditional pastoralism appears critical to the maintenance of avian diversity in these savannas.     

A palaeo-hydrogeological model for arsenic contamination in southern and south-east Asia

An argument is presented in which areas of natural arsenic contamination of modern groundwaters throughout Asia have a common origin. Arsenic originally accumulated in oceanic ferro-manganoan sediments of the eastern Palaeo-Tethys. This was further concentrated through oceanic crustal extinction in what later became the south-east Chinese accreted mineralised terrain. Proto-Himalayan uplift of this area created the palaeo-drainage systems of the Ganges – Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy, Mekong, and Red Rivers, with consequent headwater erosion of arsenic-rich sediments. Their downstream deposition as immature and easily redistributed Neogene sandstones, silts, and iron-rich clays has created secondary and tertiary reservoirs of adsorbed and authigenic arsenic, from which the current arsenic-rich groundwaters have evolved. Considering river basins within the above palaeo-hydrogeological framework provides a basis for assessing the risk of arsenic in groundwater basins of south and south-eastern Asia.     

Threats to intact tropical peatlands and opportunities for their conservation

Large, intact areas of tropical peatland are highly threatened at a global scale by the expansion of commercial agriculture and other forms of economic development. Conserving peatlands on a landscape scale, with their hydrology intact, is of international conservation importance to preserve their distinctive biodiversity and ecosystem services and maintain their resilience to future environmental change. We explored threats to and opportunities for conserving remaining intact tropical peatlands; thus, we excluded peatlands of Indonesia and Malaysia, where extensive deforestation, drainage, and conversion to plantations means conservation in this region can protect only small fragments of the original ecosystem. We focused on a case study, the Pastaza‐Marañón Foreland Basin (PMFB) in Peru, which is among the largest known intact tropical peatland landscapes in the world and is representative of peatland vulnerability. Maintenance of the hydrological conditions critical for carbon storage and ecosystem function of peatlands is, in the PMFB, primarily threatened by expansion of commercial agriculture linked to new transport infrastructure that is facilitating access to remote areas. There remain opportunities in the PMFB and elsewhere to develop alternative, more sustainable land‐use practices. Although some of the peatlands in the PMFB fall within existing legally protected areas, this protection does not include the most carbon‐dense (domed pole forest) areas. New carbon‐based conservation instruments (e.g., REDD+, Green Climate Fund), developing markets for sustainable peatland products, transferring land title to local communities, and expanding protected areas offer pathways to increased protection for intact tropical peatlands in Amazonia and elsewhere, such as those in New Guinea and Central Africa which remain, for the moment, broadly beyond the frontier of commercial development.     

What Every Conservation Biologist Should Know about Economic Theory

Abstract: The last century has seen the ascendance of a core economic model, which we will refer to as Walrasian economics. This model is driven by the psychological assumptions that humans act only in a self‐referential and narrowly rational way and that production can be described as a self‐contained circular flow between firms and households. These assumptions have critical implications for the way economics is used to inform conservation biology. Yet the Walrasian model is inconsistent with a large body of empirical evidence about actual human behavior, and it violates a number of basic physical laws. Research in behavioral science and neuroscience shows that humans are uniquely social animals and not self‐centered rational economic beings. Economic production is subject to physical laws including the laws of thermodynamics and mass balance. In addition, some contemporary economic theory, spurred by exciting new research in human behavior and a wealth of data about the negative global impact of the human economy on natural systems, is moving toward a world view that places consumption and production squarely in its behavioral and biophysical context. We argue that abandoning the straightjacket of the Walrasian core is essential to further progress in understanding the complex, coupled interactions between the human economy and the natural world. We call for a new framework for economic theory and policy that is consistent with observed human behavior, recognizes the complex and frequently irreversible interaction between human and natural systems, and directly confronts the cumulative negative effects of the human economy on the Earth's life support systems. Biophysical economics and ecological economics are two emerging economic frameworks in this movement.