Impact of earthworms on trace element solubility in contaminated mine soils amended with green waste compost

The common practice of remediating metal contaminated mine soils with compost can reduce metal mobility and promote revegetation, but the effect of introduced or colonising earthworms on metal solubility is largely unknown. We amended soils from an As/Cu (1150 mgAs kg⁻¹ and 362 mgCu kg⁻¹) and Pb/Zn mine (4550 mgPb kg⁻¹ and 908 mgZn kg⁻¹) with 0, 5, 10, 15 and 20% compost and then introduced Lumbricus terrestris. Porewater was sampled and soil extracted with water to determine trace element solubility, pH and soluble organic carbon. Compost reduced Cu, Pb and Zn, but increased As solubility. Earthworms decreased water soluble Cu and As but increased Pb and Zn in porewater. The effect of the earthworms decreased with increasing compost amendment. The impact of the compost and the earthworms on metal solubility is explained by their effect on pH and soluble organic carbon and the environmental chemistry of each element.     

Effects of biochar and greenwaste compost amendments on mobility, bioavailability and toxicity of inorganic and organic contaminants in a multi-element polluted soil

Applying amendments to multi-element contaminated soils can have contradictory effects on the mobility, bioavailability and toxicity of specific elements, depending on the amendment. Trace elements and PAHs were monitored in a contaminated soil amended with biochar and greenwaste compost over 60 days field exposure, after which phytotoxicity was assessed by a simple bio-indicator test. Copper and As concentrations in soil pore water increased more than 30 fold after adding both amendments, associated with significant increases in dissolved organic carbon and pH, whereas Zn and Cd significantly decreased. Biochar was most effective, resulting in a 10 fold decrease of Cd in pore water and a resultant reduction in phytotoxicity. Concentrations of PAHs were also reduced by biochar, with greater than 50% decreases of the heavier, more toxicologically relevant PAHs. The results highlight the potential of biochar for contaminated land remediation.     

Arsenic mobility and speciation in a contaminated urban soil are affected by different methods of green waste compost application

Application of green waste compost (GWC) to brownfield land is now common practice in soil restoration. However, previous studies have demonstrated both beneficial and detrimental effects on arsenic and metal mobility. In this paper, trace element behaviour was investigated following GWC application, either as surface mulch to, or mixed into soil from a previously described brownfield site in the U.K. Significant differences in arsenic mobility were observed between treatments. Mulching caused most disturbance, significantly increasing soil pore water As, together with Fe, P, Cr, Ni and dissolved organic carbon, the latter was a critical factor enhancing As mobilization. Arsenate was the main inorganic As species in soil pore water, increasing in concentration over time. An initial flush of potentially more toxic arsenite decreased 4 weeks after compost application. Biological processes appeared to play an important role in influencing As mobility. The results point to the necessity for careful management of As-contaminated soils.     

The use of olive-mill waste compost to promote the plant vegetation cover in a trace-element-contaminated soil

The applicability of a mature compost as a soil amendment to promote the growth of native species for the phytorestoration of a mine-affected soil from a semi-arid area (SE Spain), contaminated with trace elements (As, Cd, Cu, Mn, Pb and Zn), was evaluated in a 2-year field experiment. The effects of an inorganic fertiliser were also determined for comparison. Bituminaria bituminosa was the selected native plant since it is a leguminous species adapted to the particular local pedoclimatic conditions. Compost addition increased total organic-C concentrations in soil with respect to the control and fertiliser treatments, maintained elevated available P concentrations throughout the duration of the experiment and stimulated soil microbial biomass, while trace elements extractability in the soil was rather low due to the calcareous nature of the soil and almost unaltered in the different treatments. Tissue concentrations of P and K in B. bituminosa increased after the addition of compost, associated with growth stimulation. Leaf Cu concentration was also increased by the amendments, although overall the trace elements concentrations can be considered non-toxic. In addition, the spontaneous colonisation of the plots by a total of 29 species of 15 different families at the end of the experiment produced a greater vegetation cover, especially in plots amended with compost. Therefore, the use of compost as a soil amendment appears to be useful for the promotion of a vegetation cover and the phytostabilisation of moderately contaminated soils under semi-arid conditions.     

Soil type affects migration pattern of airborne Pb and Cd under a spruce-beech forest of the UN-ECE integrated monitoring site Zöbelboden, Austria

Anthropogenic trace element emissions have declined. However, top soils all over the world remain enriched in trace elements. We investigated Pb and Cd migration in forest soils of a remote monitoring site in the Austrian limestone Alps between 1992 and 2004. Large spatial variability masked temporal changes in the mineral soil of Lithic Leptosols (Skeltic), whereas a significant reduction of Pb concentrations in their forest floors occurred. Reductions of concentrations in the less heterogeneous Cambisols (Chromic) were significant. In contrast, virtually no migration of Pb and Cd were found in Stagnosols due to their impeded drainage. Very low element concentrations (<1 μg l⁻¹) in field-collected soil solutions using tension lysimeters (0.2 μm nylon filters) imply that migration largely occurred by preferential flow as particulate-bound species during intensive rainfall events. Our results indicate that the extent of Pb and Cd migration in soils is largely influenced by soil type.     

Effects of compost and phosphate amendments on arsenic mobility in soils and arsenic uptake by the hyperaccumulator,Pteris vittata L

Chinese brake fern (Pteris vittata L.), an arsenic (As) hyperaccumulator, has shown the potential to remediate As-contaminated soils. This study investigated the effects of soil amendments on the leachability of As from soils and As uptake by Chinese brake fern. The ferns were grown for 12 weeks in a chromated-copper-arsenate (CCA) contaminated soil or in As spiked contaminated (ASC) soil. Soils were treated with phosphate rock, municipal solid waste, or biosolid compost. Phosphate amendments significantly enhanced plant As uptake from the two tested soils with frond As concentrations increasing up to 265% relative to the control. After 12 weeks, plants grown in phosphate-amended soil removed >8% of soil As. Replacement of As by P from the soil binding sites was responsible for the enhanced mobility of As and subsequent increased plant uptake. Compost additions facilitated As uptake from the CCA soil, but decreased As uptake from the ASC soil. Elevated As uptake in the compost-treated CCA soil was related to the increase of soil water-soluble As and As(V) transformation into As(III). Reduced As uptake in the ASC soil may be attributed to As adsorption to the compost. Chinese brake fern took up As mainly from the iron-bound fraction in the CCA soil and from the water-soluble/exchangeable As in the ASC soil. Without ferns for As adsorption, compost and phosphate amendments increased As leaching from the CCA soil, but had decreased leaching with ferns when compared to the control. For the ASC soil, treatments reduced As leaching regardless of fern presence. This study suggest that growing Chinese brake fern in conjunction with phosphate amendments increases the effectiveness of remediating As-contaminated soils, by increasing As uptake and decreasing As leaching.     

Remediation of metal polluted mine soil with compost: co-composting versus incorporation

Trace element contamination of post-industrial sites represents a major environmental problem and sustainable management options for remediating them are required. This study compared two strategies for immobilizing trace elements (Cu, Pb, Zn, and As) in mine spoil: (1) co-composting contaminated soil with organic wastes and (2) conventional incorporation of mature compost into contaminated soil. Sequential chemical extraction of the soil was performed to determine temporal changes in trace element fractionation and bioavailability during composting and plant growth. We show that mine spoil can be co-composted successfully and this action causes significant shifts in metal availability. However, co-composting did not lead to significant differences in metal partitioning in soil or in plant metal uptake compared with simply mixing mine spoil with mature compost. Both treatments promoted plant growth and reduced metal accumulation in plants. We conclude that co-composting provides little additional benefit for remediating trace-element-polluted soil compared with incorporation of compost.     

Mechanisms of enhanced mobilisation of trace metals by anionic surfactants in soil

Long-term applications of small concentrations of surfactants in soil via wastewater irrigation or pesticide application may enhance trace metal solubility. Mechanisms by which anionic surfactants (Aerosol 22, SDS and Biopower) affect trace metal solubility were assessed using batch, incubation and column experiments. In batch experiments on seven soils, the concentrations of Cu, Cd, Ni and Zn in the dissolved fraction of soils increased up to 100-fold at the high application rates, but increased less than 1.5-fold below the critical micelle concentration. Dissolved metal concentrations were less than 20% affected by surfactants in long-term incubations (70 days) up to the largest dose of 200 mg C kg⁻¹ soil. Leaching soil columns with A22 (100-1000 mg C L⁻¹) under unsaturated conditions increased trace metal concentrations in the leachates 2-4 fold over the control. Correlation analysis and speciation modelling showed that the increased solubility of metals upon surfactant application was more related to the solubilisation of soil organic matter from soil than to complexation of the metals with the surfactant. Organic matter from soil was solubilised in response to a decrease of solution Ca²⁺ as a result of Ca-surfactant precipitation. At environmentally relevant concentrations, surfactant application is unlikely to have a significant effect on trace metal mobility.     

Arsenic mobility in brownfield soils amended with green waste compost or biochar and planted with Miscanthus

Degraded land that is historically contaminated from different sources of industrial waste provides an opportunity for conversion to bioenergy fuel production and also to increase sequestration of carbon in soil through organic amendments. In pot experiments, As mobility was investigated in three different brownfield soils amended with green waste compost (GWC, 30% v/v) or biochar (BC, 20% v/v), planted with Miscanthus. Using GWC improved crop yield but had little effect on foliar As uptake, although the proportion of As transferred from roots to foliage differed considerably between the three soils. It also increased dissolved carbon concentrations in soil pore water that influenced Fe and As mobility. Effects of BC were less pronounced, but the impacts of both amendments on SOC, Fe, P and pH are likely to be critical in the context of As leaching to ground water. Growing Miscanthus had no measurable effect on As mobility.     

Phytostabilization of semiarid soils residually contaminated with trace elements using by-products: sustainability and risks

We investigated the efficiency of various by-products (sugarbeet lime, biosolid compost and leonardite), based on single or repeated applications to field plots, on the establishment of a vegetation cover compatible with a stabilization strategy on a multi-element (As, Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn) contaminated soil 4-6 years after initial amendment applications. Results indicate that the need for re-treatment is amendment- and element-dependent; in some cases, a single application may reduce trace element concentrations in above-ground biomass and enhance the establishment of a healthy vegetation cover. Amendment performance as evaluated by % cover, biomass and number of colonizing taxa differs; however, changes in plant community composition are not necessarily amendment-specific. Although the translocation of trace elements to the plant biotic compartment is greater in re-vegetated areas, overall loss of trace elements due to soil erosion and plant uptake is usually smaller compared to that in bare soil.     

Mobility of metals and metalloids in a multi-element contaminated soil 20 years after cessation of the pollution source activity

Knowledge of trace element concentrations and mobility is important in the ecotoxicological assessment of contaminated soils. We analysed soil pore water under field conditions to provide new insights into the mobility of residual contaminants in the surface 50cm of a highly contaminated woodland soil. Cadmium and Zn were highly mobile in the acidic soil, concentrations increasing with depth in soil pore water, showing considerable downward mobility. High levels of surface organic matter restricted the solubility of Cu, Pb and Sb, with highest concentrations being found close to the surface. Dissolved organic carbon in pore water had a strong influence on mobility of Cu, Zn, Pb and Sb. Elevated As had moved from the organic surface horizons but was largely immobilised in deeper layers and associated with Fe and Al oxides. The measured differential mobility of pollutants in the present study is highly relevant to protection of groundwater and other receptors.     

Effects of incubation on solubility and mobility of trace metals in two contaminated soils

Much research has focused on changes in solubility and mobility of trace metals in soils under incubation. In this experiment, changes in solubility and mobility of trace metals (Pb, Cu and As) and Fe in two contaminated soils from Tampa, Florida and Montreal, Canada were examined. Soils of 30 g were packed in columns and were incubated for 3-80 days under water-flooding incubation. Following incubation, metal concentrations in pore water (water soluble) and in 0.01 M CaCl2 leachates (exchangeable+water soluble) were determined. While both soils were contaminated with Pb (1600-2500 mg kg(-1)), Tampa soil was also contaminated with As (230 mg kg(-1)). Contrast to the low pH (3.8) of Tampa soil, Montreal soil had an alkaline pH of 7.7 and high Ca of 1.6%. Concentrations of Fe(II) increased with incubation time in the Tampa soil mainly due to reductive Fe dissolution, but decreased in the Montreal soil possibly due to formation of FeCO3. The inverse relationship between concentrations of Pb and Fe(II) in pore water coupled with the fact that Fe(II) concentrations were much greater than those of Pb in pore water may suggest the importance of Fe(II) in controlling Pb solubility in soils. However, changes in concentrations of Fe(II), Pb, Cu and As in pore water with incubation time were similar to those in leachate, i.e. water soluble metals were positively related to exchangeable metals in the two contaminated soils. This research suggests the importance of Fe in controlling metal solubility and mobility in soils under water-flooded incubation.     

Mobility of arsenic, cadmium and zinc in a multi-element contaminated soil profile assessed by in-situ soil pore water sampling, column leaching and sequential extraction

Three methods for predicting element mobility in soils have been applied to an iron-rich soil, contaminated with arsenic, cadmium and zinc. Soils were collected from 0 to 30 cm, 30 to 70 cm and 70 to 100 cm depths in the field and soil pore water was collected at different depths from an adjacent 100 cm deep trench. Sequential extraction and a column leaching test in the laboratory were compared to element concentrations in pore water sampled directly from the field. Arsenic showed low extractability, low leachability and occurred at low concentrations in pore water samples. Cadmium and zinc were more labile and present in higher concentrations in pore water, increasing with soil depth. Pore water sampling gave the best indication of short term element mobility when field conditions were taken into account, but further extraction and leaching procedures produced a fuller picture of element dynamics, revealing highly labile Cd deep in the soil profile.     

Arsenic stability and mobilization in soil at an amenity grassland overlying chemical waste (St. Helens, UK)

A 6.6 ha grassland, established on a former chemical waste site adjacent to a residential area, contains arsenic (As) in surface soil at concentrations 200 times higher than UK Soil Guideline Values. The site is not recognized as statutory contaminated land, partly on the assumption that mobility of the metalloid presents a negligible threat to human health, groundwater and ecological receptors. Evidence for this is evaluated, based on studies of the effect of organic (green waste compost) and inorganic (iron oxides, lime and phosphate) amendments on As fractionation, mobility, plant uptake and earthworm communities. Arsenic mobility in soil was low but significantly related to dissolved organic matter and phosphate, with immobilization associated with iron oxides. Plant uptake was low and there was little apparent impact on earthworms. The existing vegetation cover reduces re-entrainment of dust-blown particulates and pathways of As exposure via this route. Minimizing risks to receptors requires avoidance of soil exposure, and no compost or phosphate application.     

Influence of mature compost amendment on total and bioavailable polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in contaminated soils

A laboratory microcosm study was carried out to assess the influence of compost amendment on the degradation and bioavailability of PAHs in contaminated soils. Three soils, contaminated with diesel, coal ash and coal tar, respectively, were amended with two composts made from contrasting feedstock (green waste and predominantly meat waste) at two different rates (250 and 750 t ha^?1) and incubated for 8 months. During this period the treatments were sampled for PAH analysis after 0, 3, 6 and 8 months. Total and bioavailable fractions were obtained by sequential ultrasonic solvent extraction and hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin extraction, respectively, and PAHs were identified and quantified by GC–MS. Bioavailability decrease due to sorption was only observed at the first 3 months in the diesel spiked soil. After 8 months, compost addition resulted in over 90% loss of total PAHs irrespective of soil types. Desorption and degradation contributed to 30% and 70%, respectively, of the PAH loss in the spiked soil, while PAH loss in the other two soils resulted from 40% enhanced desorption and 60% enhanced degradation. Compost type and application rates had little influence on PAH bioavailability, but higher PAH removal was observed at higher initial concentration during the early stage of incubation. The bioavailable fraction of PAH was inversely correlated to the number of benzene rings and the octanol–water partition coefficient. Further degradation was not likely after 8-month although over 30% of the residual PAHs were bioavailable, which highlighted the application of bioavailability concept during remediation activities.     

Use of the modified BCR three-step sequential extraction procedure for the study of trace element dynamics in contaminated soils

The modified BCR three-step sequential extraction procedure was used to examine the temporal dynamics of trace elements in soils contaminated by an accidental spill from an opencast mine in south-west Spain. Soils were mainly contaminated with pyritic sludge and acidic wastewater, whereas some soils were affected only by acidic wastewater. The distributions obtained for both some major (Ca, Fe and Mn) and trace elements (As, Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn) in the sludge and soil samples taken at different times after the accident, 1-3 months and 21 months, were compared. Sequential extractions were useful in identifying different sources of contamination, and in obtaining additional information on the solubility of secondary minerals formed by pyrite oxidation. Thus, the effectiveness of the BCR procedure has proved to be a useful tool for predicting short- and long-term mobility of trace elements, even in complex environmental scenarios.     

Amendment of arsenic and chromium polluted soil from wood preservation by iron residues from water treatment

An iron-rich water treatment residue (WTR) consisting mainly of ferrihydrite was used for immobilization of arsenic and chromium in a soil contaminated by wood preservatives. A leaching batch experiment was conducted using two soils, a highly contaminated soil (1033 mg kg⁻¹ As and 371 mg kg⁻¹ Cr) and slightly contaminated soil (225 mg kg⁻¹ As and 27 mg kg⁻¹ Cr). Compared to an untreated reference soil, amendment with 5% WTR reduced leaching in the highly contaminated soil by 91% for Cr and 98% for As. No aging effect was observed after 103 d. In a small field experiment, soil was mixed with 2.5% WTR in situ. Pore water was extracted during 3 years from the amended soil and a control site. Pore water arsenic concentrations in the amended soil were more than two orders of magnitude lower than in the control for the upper samplers. An increased release of arsenic was observed during winter in both fields, mostly in the deepest samplers. This is likely due to the formation of a pseudo-gley because of precipitation surplus. Stabilization of arsenic and chromium contaminated soil using WTR is a promising method but the transformation of ferrihydrite in soil proves a concern in case of waterlogged soils. Still the amendment minimized the leaching of arsenic, even in cases of seasonal releases.     

Extractability and mobility of mercury from agricultural soils surrounding industrial and mining contaminated areas

This study focussed on a comparison of the extractability of mercury in soils with two different contamination sources (a chlor-alkali plant and mining activities) and on the evaluation of the influence of specific soil properties on the behaviour of the contaminant. The method applied here did not target the identification of individual species, but instead provided information concerning the mobility of mercury species in soil. Mercury fractions were classified as mobile, semi-mobile and non-mobile.The fractionation study revealed that in all samples mercury was mainly present in the semi-mobile phase (between 63% and 97%). The highest mercury mobility (2.7 mg kg⁻¹) was found in soils from the industrial area. Mining soils exhibited higher percentage of non-mobile mercury, up to 35%, due to their elevated sulfur content.Results of factor analysis indicate that the presence of mercury in the mobile phase could be related to manganese and aluminium soil contents. A positive relation between mercury in the semi-mobile fraction and the aluminium content was also observed. By contrary, organic matter and sulfur contents contributed to mercury retention in the soil matrix reducing the mobility of the metal.Despite known limitations of sequential extraction procedures, the methodology applied in this study for the fractionation of mercury in contaminated soil samples provided relevant information on mercury’s relative mobility.     

Planting woody crops on dredged contaminated sediment provides both positive and negative effects in terms of remediation

There is currently a requirement for studies focusing on the long-term sustainability of phytoremediation technologies. Trace element uptake by Salix, Populus and Alnus species planted in dredged contaminated canal sediment and concentrations in sediment and pore waters were investigated, eight years after a phytoremediation trial was initiated in NW England. Soil biological activity was also measured using invertebrate and microbial assays to determine soil quality improvements. Zinc was the dominant trace metal in foliage and woody stems, and the most mobile trace element in sediment pore water (∼14 mg l⁻¹). Biological activity had improved; earthworm numbers had increased from 5 to 24, and the QBS index (an index of microarthropod groups in soil) had increased from 70 to 88. It is concluded that biological conditions had improved and natural processes appear to be enhancing soil quality, but there remains a potential risk of trace element transfer to the wider environment.     

Mobility and phytoavailability of Cu,Cr, Zn,and As in a contaminated soil at a wood preservation site after 4 years of aided phytostabilization

The remediation of copper-contaminated soils by aided phytostabilisation in 16 field plots at a wood preservation site was investigated. The mobility and bioavailability of four potentially toxic trace elements (PTTE), i.e., Cu, Zn, Cr, and As, were investigated in these soils 4 years after the incorporation of compost (OM, 5 % w/w) and dolomite limestone (DL, 0.2 % w/w), singly and in combination (OMDL), and the transplantation of mycorrhizal poplar and willows. Topsoil samples were collected in all field plots and potted in the laboratory. Total PTTE concentrations were determined in soil pore water (SPW) collected by Rhizon soil moisture samplers. Soil exposure intensity was assessed by Chelex100-DGT (diffusive gradient in thin films) probes. The PTTE phytoavailability was characterized by growing dwarf beans on potted soils and analyzing their foliar PTTE concentrations. OM and DL, singly and in combination (OMDL), were effective to decrease foliar Cu, Cr, Zn, and As concentrations of beans, the lowest values being numerically for the OM plants. The soil treatments did not reduce the Cu and Zn mineral masses of the bean primary leaves, but those of Cr and As decreased for the OM and DL plants. The Cu concentration in SPW was increased in the OM soil and remained unchanged in the DL and OMDL soils. The available Cu measured by DGT used to assess the soil exposure intensity correlated with the foliar Cu concentration. The Zn concentrations in SPW were reduced in the DL soil. All amendments increased As in the SPW. Based on DGT data, Cu availability was reduced in both OM and OMDL soils, while DL was the most effective to decrease soil Zn availability.