Characterization of polychlorinated biphenyls and brominated flame retardants in surface soils from Surabaya, Indonesia

In this study, soil contamination by PCBs, PBDEs, HBCDs and two novel BFRs such as 1,2-bis-(2,4,6-tribromopenoxy) ethane (BTBPE) and decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE) in various locations such as industrial, urban, rural, dumping site and agricultural areas of Surabaya, Indonesia has been characterized in order to evaluate their contamination status, profiles, potential sources, fate and behavior. Range and median concentrations of PCBs, PBDEs, HBCDs, BTBPE and DBDPE were ND - 9.6 (1.2), 0.069 - 24 (7.4), ND - 1.8 (0.48), ND - 1.7 (0.14) and ND - 7.6 (2.2) ng g⁻¹ dw, respectively. Industrial, urban and dumping areas were inventoried as the main sources of these pollutants. Decreasing gradient levels were observed for these contaminants from industrial district, urban, dumping site, rural and agricultural areas, in that order. Furthermore, organic carbon contents and proximity to the point sources were found as the major controlling factors. Contaminant profiles were characterized by the predominance of hexa-, hepta- and penta-homologues for PCBs; deca-, nona- and octa- for PBDEs and α-isomer for HBCDs. Product mixtures such as Ar1260/KC600 and Ar1254/KC500 for PCBs, deca- and octa-BDEs for PBDEs were the possible common formulations used in study area. To our knowledge, this is a first comprehensive study on characterization of soil contamination by PCBs, PBDEs and HBCDs together with two novel BFRs in a highly industrialized city located in tropical region. This study provides baseline information for establishing national monitoring programs in Indonesia.     

Spatial distribution and accumulation of brominated flame retardants, polychlorinated biphenyls and organochlorine pesticides in blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) from coastal waters of Korea

Blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) from 20 locations along the coastal waters of Korea were analyzed to elucidate the characteristic distribution and contamination status of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine pesticides. To our knowledge, this is the first study to report on the contamination status of HBCDs from Korea. PBDEs and HBCDs were found in mussels at levels ranging from 6.6 to 440 and from 6.0 to 500 ng/g lipid wt., respectively. Concentrations of PBDEs in mussels from Korea were higher or comparable to available data in mussels from other countries. Among the organochlorine compounds (OCs) analyzed, levels of PCBs and DDTs were the highest followed by CHLs, HCHs and hexachlorobenzene. For all the compounds, higher concentrations were found in mussels from southeastern coast of Korea. The present study shows the importance of mussels as bioindicators for monitoring contaminants in coastal waters.     

Levels and sources of brominated flame retardants in human hair from urban, e-waste, and rural areas in South China

Human hair and indoor dust from urban, e-waste, and rural areas in south China were collected and analyzed for brominated flame retardants (BFRs). BFRs concentrations in hair from occupational e-waste recycling workers were higher than those from non-occupational exposed residents in other sampling areas. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE) are two major BFRs in hair samples. The PBDE congener profiles in hair from the e-waste area are different from those from urban and rural areas with relatively higher contribution of lower brominated congeners. DBDPE, instead of BDE209, has become the major BFR in non-e-waste recycling areas. Significant correlations were found between hair level and dust level for DBDPE and BTBPE but not for PBDEs. The different PBDE congener profiles between dust and hair may suggest that exogenous exposure to the PBDE adsorbed on dust is not a major source of hair PBDEs.     

Conventional and emerging halogenated flame retardants (HFRs) in sediment of Yangtze River Delta (YRD) region,East China

The occurrence and distribution of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and eleven non-PBDE halogenated flame retardants (HFRs) were investigated through the collection of marine and river sediment from Yangtze River Delta (YRD), East China. Among them, PBDEs, decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE) and 1,2-dibromo-4-(1,2-dibromoethyl)cyclohexane (TBECH) were the three predominant HFRs with the highest detection frequencies in the sediment. Significant correlation between PBDEs and DBDPE indicated that they may have the similar emission sources. The production and use of DBDPE is growing rapidly and comparable concentrations between PBDEs and DBDPE in YRD sediment may suggest that DBDPE will likely become one of the major HFRs emerging in the environment in China. Of the seven detected non-PBDE HFRs, this is the first time that TBECH was reported in the Chinese environment and its predominance and prevalence in the YRD may imply its extensive use in these areas.     

Evaluation of spatial distribution and accumulation of novel brominated flame retardants,HBCD and PBDEs in an Italian subalpine lake using zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha)

Because of the reduction in the use of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD), novel brominated flame retardants (NBFRs), including 1,2-bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy) ethane (BTBPE), decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE), hexabromobenzene (HBB), and pentabromoethylbenzene (PBEB), started to be marketed as alternatives to the banned formulations. In this study, the spatial distribution and accumulation of NBFRs, PBDEs, and HBCD in the biota have been investigated in the littoral compartment of a large and deep subalpine lake (Lake Maggiore, Northern Italy), using zebra mussel Dreissena polymorpha and roach (Rutilus rutilus) as bioindicators. To our knowledge, this is the first study reporting the contamination of NBFRs in the freshwater invertebrate D. polymorpha. Contamination of zebra mussel due to PBEB, HBB, and BTBPE was low, ranging from 0.9 to 2.9 ng/g lipid weight, from 1.1 to 2.9 ng/g l.w., and from 3.5 to 9.5 ng/g l.w., respectively. PBEB and BTBPE in roach were always below the detection limit, while the contamination of HBB ranged from < limits of detection (LOD) to 1.74 ng/g l.w., indicating a weak contamination. DBDPE was < LOD in all the considered biological samples. Finally, HBCD was detected in all organic tissues with mean concentrations up to 74.4 ng/g l.w. PBDE results, supported by principal component analysis elaboration, suggested a possible contamination due to the congeners composing the penta- and deca-BDE technical formulations, which are present in the Lake Maggiore basin. The biomagnification factor values showed that tetra- and penta-BDE biomagnified, while octa-, nona-, and deca-BDE were still bioavailable and detectable in the fish muscles, but they do not biomagnified. Considering the other BFRs, only HBCD showed a moderate biomagnification potential.     

Occurrence of alternative flame retardants in indoor dust from New Zealand: indoor sources and human exposure assessment

Due to worldwide restrictions on polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), the demand for alternative flame retardants (AFRs), such as organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs), novel brominated FRs (NBFRs) and hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs), has recently increased. Little is known about human exposure to NBFRs and OPFRs and that their levels in dust have been scarcely evaluated worldwide. To increase the knowledge regarding these chemicals, we measured concentrations of five major NBFRs, ten OPFRs and three HBCD isomers in indoor dust from New Zealand homes. Dust samples were taken from living room floors (n=34) and from mattresses of the same houses (n=16). Concentrations (ngg(-1)) of NBFRs were: 1,2-bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy)ethane (BTBPE) (<2-175), decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE) (<5-1430), 2-ethylhexyl-2,3,4,5-tetrabromobenzoate (TBB) (<2-2285) and bis(2-ethylhexyl)-3,4,5,6-tetrabromophthalate (TBPH) (<2-640). For OPFRs, concentrations (ngg(-1)) ranged between: tri-ethyl-phosphate (TEP) (<10-235), tri-n-butyl-phosphate (TnBP) (<20-7545), tris-(2-chloroethyl)-phosphate (TCEP) (<20-7605), tris-(1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TCPP) (20-7615), tri-(2-butoxyethyl)-phosphate (TBEP) (50-27325), tris-(2,3-dichloropropyl)-phosphate (TDCPP) (20-16560), tri-phenyl-phosphate (TPhP) (20-35190), and tri-cresyl-phosphate (TCP) (<50-3760). HBCD concentrations fell in the range <2-4100ngg(-1). BTBPE, DBDPE, TBPH, TBEP, and TnBP showed significant positive correlation (p<0.05) between their concentrations in mattresses and the corresponding floor dust (n=16). These data were used to derive a range of plausible exposure scenarios. Although the estimated exposure is well below the corresponding reference doses (RfDs), caution is needed given the likely future increase in use of these FRs and the currently unknown contribution to human exposure by other pathways such as inhalation and diet.     

Spatial distribution and vertical profile of polybrominated diphenyl ethers and hexabromocyclododecanes in sediment core from Tokyo Bay, Japan

Brominated flame retardants (BFRs), hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs) and polybrominated diethyl ethers (PBDEs) were detected in three sediment cores and six surface sediments of Tokyo Bay, Japan. HBCDs were detected for the first time in this region with concentrations ranging from 0.056 to 2.3 ng/g dry wt, implying their widespread contamination, even though their concentrations were lower than summation operatorPBDEs (di- to nona-BDEs) and BDE-209. Levels of these compounds were higher near to the highly populated industrial area of the bay implicating industrial and human activities as sources of these compounds. Summation operatorPBDEs increased in the sediment layer up to the mid-1990s and decreased afterwards, whereas BDE-209 showed an increasing trend until now, following the usage of different commercial BDE mixtures. HBCDs first appeared in the mid-1970s and increased until today. The annual surficial flux of HBCDs (0.62-2.4 ng/cm2/yr) is equal to summation operatorPBDEs (0.95-2.6 ng/cm2/yr) but lower than that of BDE-209 (17-58 ng/cm2/yr).     

Soil contamination by brominated flame retardants in open waste dumping sites in Asian developing countries

In Asian developing countries, large amounts of municipal wastes are dumped into open dumping sites each day without adequate management. This practice may cause several adverse environmental consequences and increase health risks to local communities. These dumping sites are contaminated with many chemicals including brominated flame retardants (BFRs) such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs).BFRs may be released into the environment through production processes and through the disposal of plastics and electronic wastes that contain them.The purpose of this study was to elucidate the status of BFR pollution in municipal waste dumping sites in Asian developing countries. Soil samples were collected from six open waste dumping sites and five reference sites in Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Vietnam from 1999 to 2007. The results suggest that PBDEs are the dominant contaminants in the dumping sites in Asian developing countries, whereas HBCD contamination remains low. Concentrations of PBDEs and HBCDs ranged from ND to 180 μg/kg dry wt and ND to 1.4 μg/kg dry wt, respectively, in the reference sites and from 0.20 to 430 μg/kg dry wt and ND to 2.5 μg/kg dry wt, respectively, in the dumping sites. Contamination levels of PBDEs in Asian municipal dumping sites were comparable with those reported from electronic waste dismantling areas in Pearl River delta, China.     

Butyltin residues in blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) and arkshells (Scapharca broughtonii) collected from Korean coastal waters

Butyltin compounds (BTs) including tributyltin (TBT) and its degradation products, di- (DBT) and mono-butyltin (MBT), were determined in bivalves such as blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) and arkshells (Scapharca broughtonii) collected from Korean coastal waters. BTs were detected in all the blue mussels and arkshells analyzed. The concentrations of total butyltin (sigmaBTs: MBT + DBT + TBT) in blue mussels and arkshells ranged from 49 to 2500 ng/g and 29 to 87 ng/g wet weight, respectively. Higher concentrations of BTs were found in blue mussels collected from Okpo and Kohyonsong Bays and Jangsengpo Harbor where large shipyards and harbors are located with dry-dock facilities. This suggested that maritime activities nearby the harbors play a major role as the source of BTs. Concentrations of TBT in mussels collected from Korea were one of the highest values reported, suggesting ongoing TBT contamination in Korea. Among BTs, TBT was the predominant compound both in blue mussels and arkshells collected from almost all the sampling locations, indicating the fresh input of TBT in Korean coastal waters. Smaller mussels tended to accumulate BTs at higher concentrations than larger ones, which may be due to higher filtration rate of small mussels and/or contact with surface microlayer in intertidal zones.     

Geographical distribution of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and organochlorines in small cetaceans from Asian waters

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are one of the flame retardants widely used in plastics, textiles, electronic appliances, and electrical household appliances. In this study, PBDEs and organochlorine compounds (OCs) were determined in the archived samples from the Environmental Specimen Bank for Global Monitoring (es-BANK) at Ehime University. The blubber of cetaceans found stranded along the coasts of Japan, Hong Kong, the Philippines and India during the period from 1990 to 2001 were employed for chemical analysis to understand the present status of contamination and the specific accumulation of PBDEs. PBDEs were detected in all the cetacean samples analyzed, and concentrations were one or two orders of magnitude lower than for PCBs and DDTs. Concentrations of PBDEs ranged from a low value of 6.0 ng/g lipid wt. in spinner dolphin (Stenella longirostris) from India to a high value of 6000 ng/g lipid wt. in Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin (Sousa chinensis) from Hong Kong. No difference in PBDE levels between coastal and offshore species from Japan was observed, implying the existence of pollution sources in this region other than Japan. Highest concentrations of PBDEs were found in animals from Hong Kong, followed by Japan, and much lower levels from the Philippines and India, suggesting that developing nations may also have pollution sources of PBDEs. Geographical distribution of PBDEs in Asian waters was different from PCBs but similar to DDTs.     

Tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) and hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs) in tissues of humans, dolphins, and sharks from the United States

Concentrations of tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) and alpha-, beta-, and gamma-isomers of hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs) were determined by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS) in human adipose tissue obtained in New York City, and in three marine top-level predators--bottlenose dolphin, bull shark, and Atlantic sharpnose shark--collected from coastal waters of Florida, USA. The overall mean concentrations (mean+/-SD) of TBBPA and HBCDs were 0.048+/-0.102 and 0.333+/-0.571 ng/g lipid wt in human adipose tissue samples, 1.2+/-3 and 7.38+/-18 ng/g lipid wt in bottlenose dolphin blubber, 9.5+/-12 and 77.7+/-128 ng/g lipid wt in bull shark muscle, and 0.872+/-0.5 and 54.5+/-88 ng/g lipid wt in Atlantic sharpnose shark muscle. Overall mean concentrations of HBCDs were 5-10-fold higher than mean TBBPA concentrations, in all of the samples analyzed. The highest concentrations of TBBPA and HBCDs were detected in the bull shark muscle at concentrations of 35.6 and 413 ng/g, lipid wt, respectively. Concentrations of TBBPA and HBCDs, after log-transformation, were significantly correlated with each other in human adipose tissue and bottlenose dolphin blubber, but not in bull shark muscle samples. In the human adipose tissue samples, the concentrations of HBCDs were 3-4 orders of magnitude lower than the concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) previously reported for the same set of tissue samples. Concentrations of HBCDs in human samples from the United States were 1-5-fold lower than the concentrations reported from several European countries. HBCD concentrations in bottlenose dolphins from the United States were 1-2 orders of magnitude lower than the concentrations reported for other cetacean species from Europe. The present report is the first to determine levels of TBBPA and HBCDs in humans, bottlenose dolphins, and sharks from the United States.     

Brominated flame retardants in dust from UK cars--within-vehicle spatial variability, evidence for degradation and exposure implications

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs), and tetrabromobiphenol-A (TBBP-A) were measured in a preliminary study of dust from passenger cabins and trunks of 14 UK cars. Concentrations in cabin dust of HBCDs, TBBP-A, and BDEs 47, 85, 99, 100, 153, 154, 183, 196, 197, 202, 203, 206, 207, 208, and 209 exceeded significantly (p < 0.05) those in trunk dust. Sampling cabin dust thus appears to provide a more accurate indicator of human exposure via car dust ingestion than trunk dust. Elevated cabin concentrations are consistent with greater in-cabin use of BFRs. In five cars, while no significant differences (p > 0.05) in concentrations of HBCDs and most PBDEs were detected in dust sampled from four different seating areas; concentrations of TBBP-A and of PBDEs 154, 206, 207, 208, and 209 were significantly higher (p < 0.05) in dust sampled in the front seats. Possible photodebromination of BDE-209 was indicated by significantly higher (p < 0.05) concentrations of BDE-202 in cabin dust. In-vehicle exposure via dust ingestion to PBDEs, HBCDs and TBBP-A exceeded that via inhalation. Comparison with overall exposure via diet, dust ingestion, and inhalation shows while in-vehicle exposure is a minor contributor to overall exposure to BDE-99, ΣHBCDs, and TBBP-A, it is a significant pathway for BDE-209.     

Occurrence and fate of four novel brominated flame retardants in wastewater treatment plants

Four novel brominated flame retardants (NBFRs), i.e., decabromodiphenylethane (DBDPE), 1,2-bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy) ethane (BTBPE), pentabromoethylbenzene (PBEB), and hexabromobenzene (HBB) were studied in 377 liquid samples and 288 solid samples collected from 20 wastewater treatment plants. Lagoon, primary, secondary, and advanced treatment processes were included, in order to investigate NBFR occurrence and the effects of WWTP operational conditions on NBFR removal. Median influent and effluent levels were 14 to 3,700 and 1.0 to 180 pg/L respectively, with DBDPE being the highest in both. Overall median removal efficiencies for DBDPE, BTBPE, HBB, and PBEB across all process types were 81 to 93, 76 to 98, 61 to 97, and 54 to 97 %, respectively with advanced treatment processes obtaining the best removals. NBFRs removal was related to retention time, surface loading rate, and biomass concentration. Median NBFR levels in treated biosolids were 80 to 32,000 pg/g, influenced by solids treatment processes.     

Transfer of brominated flame retardants from components into dust inside television cabinets

Television (TV) set components are highly flame resistant, with their added brominated compounds such as polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). These compounds might be released indoors via dust, which presents a potential exposure pathway for humans in the home environment. In this study, we collected dust from inside TV sets and TV set component samples (parts of housing front cabinets, rear cabinets and circuit boards) of five sets used in Japan. We measured BFRs (i.e., PBDEs, tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) and hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs)) and polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxins/dibenzofurans (PBDD/DFs). Analytical results of the TV components showed that the concentrations of PBDEs, TBBPA and PBDFs (48,000mug/g, 19,000mug/g and 9600ng/g as mean values, respectively) were all highest in the rear cabinets. The SigmaPBDD concentrations (460ng/g as a mean value) detected were highest in the circuit board samples. The respective SigmaPBDE and SigmaPBDF concentrations in the dust samples were 67-500mug/g (mean 300mug/g) and 180-650ng/g (mean 410ng/g). Such concentrations were 2-3 orders of magnitude higher than those previously reported for house dust samples, which suggests that the brominated compounds are transferred from TV components into dust. Comparison of congener patterns of the brominated compounds in the dust identified the components as the source of these BFRs.     

Brominated flame retardants in the hair and serum samples from an e-waste recycling area in southeastern China: the possibility of using hair for biomonitoring

Hair samples and paired serum samples were collected from e-waste and urban areas in Wenling of Zhejiang Province, China. The PBDE and DBDPE concentrations in hair and serum samples from e-waste workers were significantly higher than those of non-occupational residents and urban residents. BDE209 was the dominating BFRs in hair and serum samples from the e-waste area, while DBDPE was the major BFRs from the urban area. Statistically significant correlations were observed between hair level and serum level for some substances (BDE209, DBDPE, BDE99, BDE47, BDE28, and BDE17), although the PBDE congener profiles in hair were different from those in the serum. A statistically significant positive correlation between the PBDE concentrations and the working age, as well as gender difference, was observed in e-waste workers. Different sources of PBDEs and DBDPE in three groups were identified by principal component analysis and spearman correlation coefficient. Hair is suggested to be a useful matrix for biomonitoring the PBDE exposure in humans.     

Characterization of polychlorinated biphenyls and brominated flame retardants in sludge,sediment and fish from municipal dumpsite at Surabaya,Indonesia

We investigated the PCBs, PBDEs and HBCDs contamination in sludge, sediments and fish from various locations including raw leachate pond, leachate treatment plans (LTPs), control wells and reference site at open landfill of municipal dumpsite, Surabaya City, Indonesia. 62 PCBs and 14 PBDEs congeners, and 3 HBCDs isomers were identified and quantified using GC–MS and LC–MS/MS, respectively. Concentration ranges and median (value in parentheses) of PCBs, PBDEs and HBCDs were from not detected (ND) to 60 (3.9) ng g⁻¹ dw, 0.0075 to 45 (4.5) ng g⁻¹ dw and ND to 2.8 (0.052) ng g⁻¹ dw in sludge and sediments, respectively. While in two polled of fish samples were 30–55 ng g⁻¹ lw, 6.6–11 ng g⁻¹ lw and 1.6–3.3 ng g⁻¹ lw, respectively. Among the sampling sites, the highest level of PCBs and PBDEs were detected in sludge from raw leachate pond. However, PCBs and PBDEs levels were showing decreased in LTP-1 that could be due to the bacterial degradation but not in LTP-2, HBCDs were more stable in both LTPs. Levels of PCBs and BFRs in sludge at the present study were lower than those reported in sewage sludge reported from some other countries. PCBs profiles were mainly composed in that order by CB-138, -153, -180, -101, -118 and -28, while by BDE-47, -99, -100, -153, -154 and -28 for PBDEs in sludge, sediments and fish. Profiles of HBCDs were predominantly composed by γ- and α-isomers in sludge and fish, respectively. Debromination, dechlorination, commercial formulations used and congener-specific accumulation of those contaminants are the factors influenced the profiles.     

Brominated flame retardant concentrations and trends in abiotic media

BFR burdens in abiotic media have been less studied than in biota, despite their essential value as an aide to identifying sources, temporal and geographic trends and exposure routes. Many polymer products consist of several percent by weight of BFRs. Global trade in these can result in rapid and wholesale BFR movement. Loss from in-use products of nonreactive BFRs may be important, particularly in respect to indoor exposure. In the case of BDE-209, discharges from publicly owned treatment works may be substantial. BFR burdens in air, water and sewage sludge respond rapidly to changes in environmental BFR inputs. PBDEs have been the most widely studied. In many locales PBDE burdens in these media now surpass those of PCBs. Air and water near sources and urban areas are typically enriched relative to rural locales. The more volatile PBDEs dominate in the vapor phase, while BDE-209 typically predominates on particulates. Evidence exists for long-range transport of the more volatile PBDEs. A greater diversity of BFRs (mostly PBDEs, HBCD and TBBP-A) has been detected in sewage sludges. Land application of these sludges on agricultural fields is one conduit for soil contamination. In general, environmental concentrations of BDE-209 appear to be increasing, while penta-BDE burdens in Europe may have peaked. Sediments function as longer-term integrators of environmental burdens. Concentrations of common BFRs therein may be substantial near point sources. Evidence for debromination in the environment has been limited to date. However, some laboratory and field observations suggest it is possible to a limited extent.     

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and alternative brominated flame retardants in air and seawater of the European Arctic

The spatial distribution of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and several alternative non-PBDE, non-regulated brominated flame retardants (BFRs) in air and seawater and the air-seawater exchange was investigated in East Greenland Sea using high-volume air and water samples. Total PBDE concentrations (Ó₁₀PBDEs) ranged from 0.09 to 1.8 pg m⁻³ in the atmosphere and from 0.03 to 0.64 pg L⁻¹ in seawater. Two alternative BFRs, Hexabromobenzene (HBB) and 2,3-dibromopropyl-2,4,6-tribromophenyl ether (DPTE), showed similar concentrations and spatial trends as PBDEs. The air-seawater gas exchange was dominated by deposition with fluxes up to −492 and −1044 pg m⁻² day⁻¹ for BDE-47 and DPTE, respectively. This study shows the first occurrence of HBB, DPTE and other alternative flame retardants (e.g., pentabromotoluene (PBT)) in the Arctic atmosphere and seawater indicating that they have a similar long-range atmospheric transport potential (LRAT) as the banned PBDEs.     

Occurrence and distribution of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in the dissolved and suspended phases of the sea-surface microlayer and seawater in Hong Kong, China

This study reports the first data on the concentration and distribution of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in the sea-surface microlayer (SML), and their enrichment relative to bulk seawater, for coastal waters in the marine environment of Hong Kong, China. Samples were collected in March 2005 at five sample locations and analysed for eight congeners of primary interest, i.e. BDE 28, 47, 99, 100, 153, 156, 183 and 209. Concentration ranges of summation operatorPBDE in the dissolved phase (DP, defined as sum of truly dissolved and colloidal phase) and suspended particulate matter (SPM) of seawater were 31.1-118.7 pg/l (mean 70.7 pg/l), and 25.7-32.5 pg/l (mean 28.1 pg/l), respectively. Concentrations in the SML were generally higher by factor of 1.3-3.6 in the DP (concentration range from 40.2 to 228.2 pg/l, mean 149.2 pg/l) and by 0.3-2.1 in the SPM (concentration range 8.1-69.1 pg/l, mean 38.2 pg/l). Concentrations of PBDEs were general low and below detection limits in samples of an oceanic character and highest in the sheltered waters of Victoria Harbour. The congeners BDE 28, 47, 100 and 183 were most abundant, where BDE 209 was detected only in trace amounts. It is suggested that Hong Kong's marine waters show relatively low levels of PBDE contamination, and these compounds may originate from the disposal of electronic waste in southern China, as well as untreated discharge of wastewater locally.     

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in sediment and bivalves from Korean coastal waters

Concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were determined in sediment and bivalves collected from 25 coastal locations in Korea. Twenty major PBDE congeners were found in all sediment and bivalve samples. SigmaPBDE20 concentrations ranged from 0.45 to 494 ng/g, dry weight (average 27.8 ng/g dry weight) in sediments, and from 0.38 to 9.19 ng/g, wet weight (average 2.94 ng/g wet weight) in bivalves. The highest concentrations were found at locations near industrial complexes and large harbors, suggesting that human activities contribute to PBDEs contamination in Korean coastal environment. PBDE concentrations measured in our study, excluding BDE congener 209 (deca-BDE), in sediment and bivalves were lower than those reported from other countries; whereas BDE 209 concentrations were comparable to or higher than those reported from other countries. The predominant PBDE congener in sediments and bivalves was deca-BDE, which accounted for >90% and >60% of the total PBDE concentrations in sediment and bivalves, respectively. This is consistent with high consumption of deca-BDE for the flame-retardant market in Korea. Significant correlations existed among BDEs 28, 47, 99, 100, 153 and 154 in sediments and bivalves; however, BDEs 183 and 209 showed little correlation compared with less highly brominated congeners.