The practice of coastal zone management in Portugal

The practice of coastal zone management in Portugal is very recent. Key issues and considerations about natural shoreline dynamics, main policy instruments, and lessons learned from the EU Demonstration Programmes on Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Portugal will be outlined in this paper in an attempt to understand how the practice of ICZM and its prospects are. Coastal zone management problems and their associated side effects, as well as national and international evolution patterns will be drawn. Some means of achieving better coastal zone management practices and ways of addressing some of its forefront issues are also identified. Special attention will go to erosion problems. The pressure induced by urban development and economic activities on coastal areas is increasing. Poor sediment availability combined with years of neglected management and over-exploitation of resources have had a negative impact, and there are many areas showing evidence of coastal erosion. There is a need to improve policies and instruments of coastal planning and management. Coastal zone management plans are being developed for the nine sectors of the continental Portuguese coast, providing a full analysis of coastal systems and a delimitation of uses in relation to the carrying capacity of the shoreline.     

The potential impacts of sea level rise along the coastal zone of Kanyakumari District in Tamilnadu,India

Climate change associated with sea level rise (SLR) is one of the major environmental concerns of today. This paper presents an assessment of the impacts of sea level rise on the coastal zone of Kanyakumari District in Tamilnadu, India. Digital Elevation Model (DEM) combined with overlay techniques in GIS are used in determining the inundation zones along the coastal region. The analysis evaluated the impact on coastal fishing villages, landuse, tourist spots and sensitive areas under threat. The vulnerability of the coastal areas in Kanyakumari to inundation was quantified, based on the projected sea level rise scenarios of 0.5 and 1 m. Our findings reveal that approximately 13 km² of the land area of Kanyakumari would be permanently inundated due to SLR. This would result in loss of land, alteration of the coastal zone and affects coastal ecosystem. From the study, the mitigation measures (engineering measures) and Coastal Zone Management practices that can be taken to protect human life and property from sea level rise are suggested.     

Dynamic modeling of urban areas for supporting integrated coastal zone management in the South Coast of São Miguel Island, Azores (Portugal)

Coastal areas are complex systems subject to significant erosion processes resulting from both physical and anthropogenic factors. This context introduces the importance of quantifying the impacts resulting from land artificialization increase, the assessment of coastal erosion and the development of strategies for achieving an Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM). In this study we employed the Land Transformation Model (LTM) to forecast urban growth to year 2014 in the South Coast of São Miguel Island, Azores (Portugal). Two different scenarios for modeling urban growth were tested: (1) one that considered an urban sprawl trend equivalent to the one measured between years 1998 and 2005, and (2) another that considered the restrictions included in the intervention area of South Coast Management Plan (POOC Costa Sul). The objective was to evaluate the impact of the POOC Costa Sul in the urban growth of the studied area. Results show that the POOC Costa Sul is not effective in containing urban growth quantities which are equivalent to the non-restricted scenario. However, it was possible to observe that it is effective in deciding where the urban expansion is likely to happen, preventing, for instances, the occurrence of urban growth near water lines or in the maritime public domain. We conclude that this type of models can be very relevant to manage and monitor coastal management plans.     

Assessment of coastal erosion susceptibility at the national scale: The Italian case

To improve the present national and local sustainable planning capability for the coastal zone a GI application for the Italian Coastal Susceptibility Assessment was planned within an institutional agreement between ENEA and the Land Defence Service of the Italian Ministry of Environment. Taking into account previous European actions a suitable methodology to assess, in a quantitative way, the susceptibility of beaches to be eroded has been set up. The methodology balances the coastline trend as evaluated for a defined time period with the present coastal areas morphology and land use, this in order to derive a value that expresses the evolutionary process in terms of probability of the loss of goods within the ‘Homogeneous Coastal Tracts’. The trend in the movement of the sea-land line has been used asgeo-indicator of a complex dynamic balance that refers both to marine and inland systems, and a vector GI application was built and locally applied in southern Italian coastal areas. The present shoreline position and some other information describing the intrinsic beach morphologies, and having significance for the coastal erosion hazard assessment, have been derived from the national 1∶10.000 ortho-images of the National Cartographic Reference System provided by the Italian Ministry of Environment. The illustrated GI application— CoSTAT—keeps the nominal scale of all data collected or produced. In this analysis the coastal dune presence is analysed as factor limiting coastal erosion susceptibility. Applying a matrix calculation a quantitative evaluation of erosion susceptibility degree was achieved and plans were made to develop new information for a suitable use of Italian coastal areas. The work describes the methodology, the conceptual frame-work and the results of a local application.     

Integrated coastal zone management in Italy: a gap between science and policy

This paper introduces the need, in Italian countries, of a real integration of scientific knowledge into coastal policy. Actually, in Italy, still exists a gap between Science and Policy, interfering the implementation of an Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) process, while there is no coordination between local, regional and national authorities. This lack of an overall strategy has induced some regions to adopt regional plans for the sustainable development of their coastal areas, to compensate the shortcomings of a national planning. Besides, along Italian coasts, there is a heavy landscape urbanization producing conditions of environmental decay and highlighting the risk of erosions in littoral areas. In this critical context, it is necessary to adopt an effective Integrated Coastal Zone Management policy, to connect ecosystem and environmental approaches with the social and economic development of coastal areas. So, in Italian landscape, it is necessary to integrate the national cultural heritage into coastal management, joining scientific and cultural issues. In this framework, ICZM process could play an important role connecting scientists and policy makers towards an effective integration for the social and economic growth of local people.     

GIS assessment of coastal vulnerability to climate change and coastal adaption planning in Vietnam

Vietnam’s coastal zone provides a diverse range of natural resources and favourable conditions for social and economic development. However, its coastal ecosystems are highly vulnerable, due to several natural coastal hazards, over-exploitation and other human activities. In spite of diverse interventions, Vietnam’s coastal zone continues to experience significant damage from floods, erosion and typhoons. These hazards are being intensified by climate change and associated rising sea levels. This paper assesses the potential vulnerability of Vietnam’s coast to climate change and discusses possible adaptation policies and plan to reduce the impacts. GIS analysis was used for the assessment of coastal vulnerability. Related literature was reviewed to develop detailed understanding of coastal adaptation to climate change. Adaptation policies and plans were appraised to identify potential coastal adaptation policies and plans that could be adapted by Vietnam. It was identified that vulnerability of the coastal zone of Vietnam could not be attributed only to climatic factors, but also to the physical condition of the coastline. Much of Vietnam’s coastline, particularly, areas around the Red River delta and the Mekong River have elevations below 1 m. These coastlines are largely developed and serve as economic centres of the country, which makes the coast more vulnerable to climate change and the rising sea level. The paper concluded that a non-structural approach (coastal buffer zones, building houses on stilts, storm warning systems, growing of flood-resistant crops and elevated storm shelters with medicine and food storage) could be used by Vietnam to adapt her low-lying coastline around the two deltas to climate change as this strategy enables vulnerable areas to be occupied for longer before eventual retreat. However, for these policies to be successful, it should be planned, implemented well in advance, monitored and evaluated over time.     

Resource users as land-sea links in coastal and marine socioecological systems

Coastal zones, which connect terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, are among the most resource-rich regions globally and home to nearly 40% of the global human population. Because human land-based activities can alter natural processes in ways that affect adjacent aquatic ecosystems, land-sea interactions are increasingly recognized as critical to coastal conservation planning and governance. However, the complex socioeconomic dynamics inherent in coastal and marine socioecological systems (SESs) have received little consideration. Drawing on knowledge generalized from long-term studies in Caribbean Nicaragua, we devised a conceptual framework that clarifies the multiple ways socioeconomically driven behavior can link the land and sea. In addition to other ecosystem effects, the framework illustrates how feedbacks resulting from changes to aquatic resources can influence terrestrial resource management decisions and land uses. We assessed the framework by applying it to empirical studies from a variety of coastal SESs. The results suggest its broad applicability and highlighted the paucity of research that explicitly investigates the effects of human behavior on coastal SES dynamics. We encourage researchers and policy makers to consider direct, indirect, and bidirectional cross-ecosystem links that move beyond traditionally recognized land-to-sea processes.     

Klimawandel in Küstenzonen

The IPCC-TAR (2001) depicts the consequences of climate change on a global scale with a central focus on vulnerability and adaptation. The objective of this article is the important regional/local scale: First, sea-level rise, storm surges and related issues are perceived here, and second, decisions about precautionary measures, and coastal protection are mostly initialised on this scale. The Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) is described as an auspicious approach managing conflicts in coastal zones.     

Integrated coastal management: the challenge of transdisciplinarity

The Euroconference on Coastal Management Research held in San-Feliu de Guixols, Spain, in December 1997 brought together scientists from a great variety of disciplines in the natural and social sciences, in a search for modes of transdisciplinary cooperation in the context of integrated coastal management. During the conference the participants discussed which interactions among disciplines are required for different coastal issues. Discussion groups each focused on a particular type of coastal environment, characterized by a particular type and degree of development. The group discussions were inspired by background papers which were prepared for this purpose by invited speakers. A selection of these background papers were redrafted on the basis of the conference outcome, and are published in this issue of theJournal of Coastal Conservation. The reports of the discussion groups are published in a conference proceedings booklet issued by EMAPS (1998), the European Polar and Marine Sciences Secretariat. A synthesis of ideas on the challenge of transdisciplinarity, expressed during the discussion group sessions, is presented in this introduction. The statements reflect opinions or suggestions which received broad support from the participants; they should not be taken as proven knowledge.     

Variation in populations of the coastal dune building grassLeymus arenarius in Iceland revealed by endospermal prolamins

Variation in the endospermal protein patterns of seeds amongst and between inland and coastal populations of the dune building grassLeymus arenarius was examined in Iceland. Seeds were collected from six coastal populations and five inland populations in Iceland. Endospermal proteins (prolamins) of seeds were extracted with Tris-buffered 2-propanol (50%) and β-mercaptoethanol (0.5% v/v). We used 8% and 12% sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) to separate the prolamin protein bands, which were stained with Coomassie Brilliant Blue R. Coastal populations were differentiated from inland populations on the basis of high frequency of high molar weight (HMW) (110–150 kg mol⁻¹) prolamins. Coastal populations had significantly higher proportions of their seed with more than two HMW prolamins, than those of inland populations. Subtle differences were found among the HMW prolamins of coastal and inland populations indicating limited intrapopulation variation. The dynamic environment of sand dunes probably influences the genetic composition of these populations. The results suggest that seeds of the inland and coastal populations should be treated separately in sand dune reclamation and restoration works     

Global rarity of intact coastal regions

Management of the land–sea interface is essential for global conservation and sustainability objectives because coastal regions maintain natural processes that support biodiversity and the livelihood of billions of people. However, assessments of coastal regions have focused strictly on either the terrestrial or marine realm. Consequently, understanding of the overall state of Earth's coastal regions is poor. We integrated the terrestrial human footprint and marine cumulative human impact maps in a global assessment of the anthropogenic pressures affecting coastal regions. Of coastal regions globally, 15.5% had low anthropogenic pressure, mostly in Canada, Russia, and Greenland. Conversely, 47.9% of coastal regions were heavily affected by humanity, and in most countries (84.1%) >50% of their coastal regions were degraded. Nearly half (43.3%) of protected areas across coastal regions were exposed to high human pressures. To meet global sustainability objectives, all nations must undertake greater actions to preserve and restore the coastal regions within their borders.     

A GIS-based vulnerability assessment of coastal natural hazards,state of Pará, Brazil

Studies carried out in the NE coastal zone of the State of Pará (Brazil) have recorded, in the last 25 years, numerous evidence of natural impacts of the flood and erosion processes. As a consequence, diverse strategies and measures of population adaptation have been implemented but with limited success. Therefore, in order to subsidize the Coastal Zone Management Program of Pará, this paper aims to identify, assess and classify natural and socio-economic vulnerabilities of this coastal zone by means of a Geographical Information Systems (GIS)-based composite coastal vulnerability index (CVI). In spite of the data problems and shortcomings, using ESRI’s Arcview 3.2 program, the CVI score, to classify, weight and combine a number of 16 separate natural and socio-economic variables to create a single indicator provides a reliable measure of differences (5 classes) among regions and communities that are exposed to similar ranges of hazards. The results are presented in three maps referred to as Natural, Socioeconomic and Total Vulnerability. The confidence associated with the results obtained, the need to utilize another variables, and to frequently update the ones used already were analyzed and discussed.     

Optical remote sensing of coastal plumes and run-off in the Mediterranean region

Sea surface colour data, derived from the Coastal Zone Colour Scanner (CZCS) archive, have been used to assess the space/time variability of coastal plumes and run-off in the Mediterranean Sea. A time series of 2645 scenes, collected by the CZCS from 1979 to 1985, was processed to apply sensor calibration algorithms, correct for atmospheric contamination, and derive chlorophyll-like pigment concentration. Individual images, remapped on a 1-km² pixel grid, were generated for each available day, and then mean values calculated pixel by pixel to form monthly, seasonal and annual composites. The results obtained must be taken with caution, due to the CZCS limitations in the quantitative assessment of bio-optical pigments when high concentrations of dissolved organics or suspended sediments are present, e.g. along littorals or within plumes. Marked differences appear in the distribution of water constituents between coastal zones and open sea, northern and southern near-coastal areas, western and eastern sub-basins. The oligotrophic character of the basin contrasts with areas of high concentration related to river plumes—Ebro (Ebre), Po, Rhone, Nile—, coastal run-off patterns, and persistent mesoscale features (e.g. coastal filaments and eddies). Seasonal variability appears to be high, with higher concentrations occurring over most of the basin in the cold season, when climatic conditions are favourable to coastal run-off and vertical mixing. Atmospheric forcing (wind and rainfall over continental margins) could play an important role in establishing the observed space/time distribution of water constituents. The impact of continental interactions (fluvial and coastal run-off), or that of exchanges between coastal zone and open sea, could have paramount influence on the biogeochemical fluxes in the entire basin.     

The Tyndall coastal simulator

The threat of sea-level rise and climate change means that coastal managers are being increasingly asked to make long-term assessments of potential coastal impacts and responses. In the UK, shoreline management planning (for flood and erosion hazards) and spatial planning now takes a 100 year perspective. An integrated framework across a wide range of physical and social issues is required for the assessment of coastal impacts and consequently for making sound management decisions. This paper provides an overview of the development of the ‘Tyndall Coastal Simulator’ including the underlying philosophy that is being followed. The Simulator is based on a series of linked climate models (CM) within a nested framework which recognises three spatial scales: (i) the global (GCM) scale; (ii) the regional scale and (iii) the Simulator Domain (a physiographic unit, such as a coastal sub-cell). Within the nesting, the larger scale provides the boundary conditions for the smaller scale. The models feed into each other and describe a range of relevant processes: sea level, tides, surges, waves, sediment transport and coastal morphology. Different climate scenarios, as well as the range of uncertainty, are being explored. Communication of results is a major issue and the Simulator includes a dedicated GIS-based user interface that allows a wide range of queries of model outputs. The paper demonstrates the possibility of developing an integrated framework that is multi-scale and capable of linking various models in order to simulate complex coastal processes and consequently allowing long-term assessments that are useful for setting future management plans.     

Economic aspects of global change impacts and response strategies in the coastal zone of The Netherlands

Economic aspects of possible land use strategies and protection measures in coastal zones as a response to global environmental change are examined. First, some key elements are mentioned that are of critical importance for water and land management in coastal zones. Next, various socio-economic repercussions are discussed. In this context, research needs will be addressed. Subsequently, these issues are considered for the case of The Netherlands. It is concluded that integrated modelling and analysis is just starting and needs to receive more attention in order to study long run economic costs, benefits and changes in coastal zones.     

The Brazilian Amazon coastal zone management: implementation and development obstacles

The Amazon region represents approximately 35% of the Brazilian coastline and includes the states of Amapá, Pará, and Maranh?o. After several years, the Amazon coastal zone has not made clear progress and has failed to show important results in terms of management plans based on the weak societal and local community support, the absence of a strong institutional coordination, and the scarcity of resources. This study aims to present and discuss the existence of others important factors that have obstructed the development of these plans, specifically, describing and analyzing the uncertainties regarding the redefinition of coastal zone boundaries, integrated management concepts, stake-holders responsibility, and governmental disinterest associated with the area by the government and society. Finally, it is considered the possibility of the emergence of new driving forces for the implementation and development of the State Coastal Zone Management Plan in the Amazon region among which the following stand out: the territorial fragmentation of the states in the Amazon coastal zone, the increased exploitation pressure for coastal zone resources, and the role of global climatic change on coastal areas.     

Development and application of GIS datasets for assessing and managing coastal impacts and future change on the central coast of Western Australia

The coastal zone between Guilderton and Kalbarri, north of Perth, Western Australia, is a highly dynamic area of high landscape and conservation values under increasing development pressures. Intensification of terrestrial and coastal impacts has highlighted the need to develop a georeferenced data base for land management. The Coastal Assessment and Restoration project aimed to document the natural resources and coastal developments to the region and to identify & assess threats to the coastal strip through the creation of GIS datasets. GIS datasets provide a key source of reference information which can be accessed by a number of stakeholders for future coastal planning and management and provide a basis for developing a risk management assessment of the coastal zone and a strategy for coastal managers in our climate change future.     

Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Egypt: The Fuka-Matrouh project

Egyptian coastlines comprise more than 3000 km along the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. The coastal area of Egypt is under severe and increasing pressure. After passing the law on the Environment (Law 4) in 1994, the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) was designated as the responsible agency to implement this law. In this respect, the EEAA formulates the general policy and prepares the necessary plans for the protection and promotion of the environment. Also, it follows up the implementation of such plans in coordination with competent administrative authorities. Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) is one of the items regulated and addressed by Law 4/94. A framework programme for ICZM in Egypt was issued in 1996. This paper presents the results of a pilot project financed by the Mediterranean Action Programme Coastal Area Management (CAMP), namely ‘Fuka-Matrouh-Egypt’ project, and implemented by the Priority Action Plan/Regional Activity Centre. It also presents the methodology followed in the study and the experience gained nationally that would lead to the sustainable development of the northwest Egyptian Coast.     

Ecosystem service value losses from coastal erosion in Europe: historical trends and future projections

Coastal zones experience increased rates of coastal erosion, due to rising sea levels, increased storm surge frequencies, reduced sediment delivery and anthropogenic transformations. Yet, coastal zones host ecosystems that provide associated services which, therefore, may be lost due to coastal erosion. In this paper we assess to what extent past and future coastal erosion patterns lead to losses in land cover types and associated ecosystem service values. Hence, historical (based on CORINE land cover information) and projected (based on Dynamic and Interactive Vulnerability Assessment - DIVA - simulations) coastal erosion patterns are used in combination with a benefits transfer approach. DIVA projections are based on regionalized IPCC scenarios. Relative to the period 1975–2050, a case study is provided for selected European coastal country member states. For historical (1975–2006) coastal erosion trends, we observe territory losses in coastal agricultural, water body and forest & semi-natural areas – total coastal erosion equaling over 4,500 km². Corresponding coastal ecosystem service values decrease from about €22.3 billion per year in 1975 to about €21.6 billion per year in 2006. For future (2006–2050) coastal erosion projections, total territory losses equal between ~3,700 km² and ~5,800 km² – coastal wetland areas being affected most severely. Corresponding coastal ecosystem service values decrease to between €20.1 and €19.4 billion per year by 2050. Hence, we argue that the response strategy of EU member states to deal with coastal erosion and climate change impacts should be based on the economic as well as the ecological importance of their coastal zones.