Irrigation-Dependent Wetlands Versus Instream Flow Enhancement: Economics of Water Transfers from Agriculture to Wildlife Uses

Irrigated agriculture throughout western North America faces increasing pressure to transfer water to nonagricultural uses, including instream flows for fish and wildlife management. In an important case, increased instream flows are needed in Nebraskas Platte River for recovery of threatened and endangered fish and wildlife species. Irrigated agriculture in the Laramie Basin of southeast Wyoming is a potential water source for the effort to enhance instream flow. However, flood irrigation of hayfields in the Laramie Basin has created many wetlands, both ephemeral and permanent, over the last century. Attempting to increase Platte River instream flows by purchasing water rights or improving irrigation efficiency in the Laramie Basin would transform irrigated agriculture, causing a substantial fraction of the Laramie Basins wetlands to be lost. A creative solution is needed to prevent the sacrifice of one ecosystem on behalf of another. A rotating short-term water-leasing program is proposed. The program allows Laramie Basin producers to contribute to instream flows while continuing to support local wetlands. Permanent wetland desiccation is prevented and regional environmental water needs are met without impairing local ecological resources. Budget analysis is used to provide an initial cost estimate for acquiring water from agriculture through the short-term leasing program. The proposed approach is more expensive than traditional programs but allows contribution to instream flows without major wetland loss. Short-term leasing is a more efficient approach if benefits from wetlands exceed the difference in cost between the short-term lease program and programs that do not conserve wetlands.     

Climate Change Adaptation: Putting Principles into Practice

Carrying out wildlife conservation in a changing climate requires planning on long timescales at both a site and network level, while also having the flexibility to adapt actions at sites over short timescales in response to changing conditions and new information. The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB), a land-owning wildlife conservation charity in the UK, achieves this on its nature reserves through its system of management planning. This involves setting network-wide objectives which inform the 25-year vision and 5-year conservation objectives for each site. Progress toward achieving each site’s conservation objectives is reviewed annually, to identify any adjustments which might be needed to the site’s management. The conservation objectives and 25-year vision of each site are reviewed every 5 years. Significant long-term impacts of climate change most frequently identified at RSPB reserves are: loss of intertidal habitat through coastal squeeze, loss of low-lying islands due to higher sea levels and coastal erosion, loss of coastal freshwater and brackish wetlands due to increased coastal flooding, and changes in the hydrology of wetlands. The main types of adaptation measures in place on RSPB reserves to address climate change-related impacts are: re-creation of intertidal habitat, re-creation and restoration of freshwater wetlands away from vulnerable coastal areas, blocking artificial drainage on peatlands, and addressing pressures on freshwater supply for lowland wet grasslands in eastern and southeastern England. Developing partnerships between organizations has been crucial in delivering large-scale adaptation projects.     

A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR EVALUATING AGRICULTURAL WATER CONSERVATION POTENTIALS1

ABSTRACT: This paper defines types of water losses in irrigated agriculture and outlines potentials for water conservation. Recoverable water “losses” (seepage, leakage, and spillage during storage and conveyance, and surface runoff and deep percolation during irrigation) and irrecoverable losses (evaporation from water and soil surfaces and transpiration from plants) are described and illustrated. Some conservation terms are defined, particularly the distinction between on-farm irrigation efficiency and areawide efficiency. Briefly reviewed are agricultural water conservation technologies and their applicability. The biggest untapped potential for water conservation may be a reduction in irrecoverable losses, especially evapotranspiration. The advantages and disadvantages of reducing recoverable and irrecoverable water losses are described, including possible effects on ground water, energy, salinity, crops, wildlife, and in-stream uses. Such information may be useful in several policy and management issues, e.g., ground water overdraft and possible constraints on crops and sites to be irrigated.     

Wetland cultivation and hydrological management in eastern Africa: Matching community and hydrological needs through sustainable wetland use

Wetlands are critical natural resources in developing countries where they perform a range of environmental functions and provide numerous socio-economic benefits to local communities and a wider population. In recent years, however, many wetlands throughout eastern Africa have come under extreme pressure as government policies, socio-economic change and population pressure have stimulated a need for more agriculturally productive land. Although wetland drainage and cultivation can make a key contribution to food and livelihood security in the short term, in the long term there are concerns over the sustainability of this utilization and the maintenance of wetland benefits. This article draws upon recent research carried out in western Ethiopia, which addressed the sustainability of wetland agriculture in an area of increasing food insecurity and population pressure. It discusses the impacts of drainage and cultivation on wetland hydrology and draws attention to local wetland management strategies, particularly those characterized by multiple use of wetlands, where agriculture exists alongside other wetland uses. The article suggests that where multiple wetland uses exist, a range of benefits can be sustained with little evidence of environmental degradation. Ways of promoting and empowering such sustainable wetland management systems are discussed in the context of the wider need for water security throughout the region.     

Wildlife conservation in Nigeria: Problems and strategies

Summary This paper draws the attention to the major threats to nature conservation in Nigeria, and reviews critically the measures adopted for the protection of wildlife. The major problems include habitat degradation (through uncontrolled logging, agricultural projects, industrial plantations, highway and urban development, and exploitation for fuelwood), over-hunting and poachingSteps taken so far to protect wildlife include the creation of one national park and eighteen game reserves, enactment of wildlife laws, signing of international treaties, and manpower development. These measures have however failed to produce the desired effect owing largely to public apathy, low level of funding, inadequate game laws and weak enforcement of existing legal provisions.It is suggested that the Federal Government should intervene more positively in favour of conservation by creating more national parks and assuming joint responsibility with the states for formulating wildlife laws. Furthermore, the role of non-governmental organizations in influencing conservation policies and mobilizing public opinion will be crucial in the difficult years ahead.Dr. P. A. Anadu, although recently on secondment to the Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, UK; is currently on the staff of the Department of Forestry and Wildlife in the Faculty of Agriculture at the University of Benin.     

A Survey of Strategies Adopted by UK Wildlife Trusts in the Promotion of Gardening for Wildlife

With the decline of wildlife due to, among other things, agricultural intensification, gardening for wildlife has an increasingly recognized role in the conservation of biodiversity and habitats. The United Kingdom (UK) Wildlife Trusts have a key role in the promotion of awareness and best practice of wildlife gardening. In spring 2001, a survey of all 46 United Kingdom County Wildlife Trusts was carried out, focussing on their level of awareness of the issue, whether they actively promoted it, and what literature they employ, and whether they form partnerships in implementing this project.The survey achieved an 83 percent reply rate. The Trusts carried out a wide variety of promotional activities, although its importance as an issue varied from Trust to Trust. Some Trusts have developed excellent promotional literature and strategies, but there could be a greater degree of sharing of ideas and cross fertilization to avoid reinventing the wheel. Few Trusts had developed partnerships, although local government was the most frequent partner.     

Gender and Urban Perceptions of Nature and Protected Areas in Bañados del Este Biosphere Reserve

Participation in conservation projects is key to the success and fair outcome of these initiatives, and perceptions of nature can affect the outcome of the participatory process. It has been argued that women hold different attitudes toward nature. Therefore an understanding of their perceptions and attitudes is vital. A survey was conducted in Castillos, Uruguay in order to assess urban perceptions of nature and surrounding protected areas. Results show that attitudes toward wildlife and reserves vary by gender. Uruguay is in the process of planning its future system of nature reserves. Considering these different perceptions is vital for the successful planning and management of reserves in Uruguay.     

Regional priorities for wetlands conservation in West Asia and North Africa

Though characterized by a scarcity of water, West Asia and North Africa region has a large number of wetlands of various types supporting a rich biodiversity. However, the government efforts to reverse the trend of wetlands degradation fall short of the policy goals due to various reasons. The paper outlines the priorities for wetlands conservation in the region.     

ENERGY AND WATER CONSERVATION STRATEGIES IN IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE1

ABSTRACT: Growers in California used several energy and water conservation strategies in response to the drought conditions of 1976 and 1977. The strategies included an increased use of ground water, in creased irrigation efficiencies, and shifts in cropping patterns. Drought-related losses to irrigated agriculture were minimized as a result of these modifications. Some future problems may have been created, however, by obtaining the needed water supplies for 1976–77. These problems include the effects of extensive water pumping on ground water reservoirs and ground subsidence. In addition, reduced water application by less frequent irrigation and changes in irrigation methods may affect the total salt balance for future years. Several conservation strategies that have some potential application in California were identified as: maintaining and augmenting surface water supply, increasing power use efficiencies, and improving irrigation efficiencies. Electricity savings associated with water conservation have been estimated as high as 25 percent. Specific near term actions suggested for facilitating conservation included: an expanded irrigation management system, efficient water deliveries, and a continued effort on the part of the individual growers to use resources during periods of normal rainfall as they were used under drought conditions.     

Assessing and Prioritizing Ecological Communities for Monitoring in a Regional Habitat Conservation Plan

In nature reserves and habitat conservation areas, monitoring is required to determine if reserves are meeting their goals for preserving species, ecological communities, and ecosystems. Increasingly, reserves are established to protect multiple species and communities, each with their own conservation goals and objectives. As resources are always inadequate to monitor all components, criteria must be applied to prioritize both species and communities for monitoring and management. While methods for prioritizing species based on endangerment or risk have been established, approaches to prioritizing ecological communities for monitoring are not well developed, despite a long-standing emphasis on communities as target elements in reserve design. We established guidelines based on four criteria derived from basic principles of conservation and landscape ecology--extent, representativeness, fragmentation, and endangerment--to prioritize communities in the San Diego Multiple Species Conservation Plan (MSCP). The MSCP was one of the first multiple-species habitat conservation areas established in California, USA, and it has a complex spatial configuration because of the patterns of surrounding land use, which are largely urbanized. In this case study, high priority communities for monitoring include coastal sage scrub (high endangerment, underrepresented within the reserve relative to the region, and moderately fragmented), freshwater wetlands, and coastal habitats (both have high fragmentation, moderate endangerment and representativeness, and low areal extent). This framework may be useful to other conservation planners and land managers for prioritizing the most significant and at-risk communities for monitoring.     

Conservation of biodiversity within Canadian agricultural landscapes: Integrating habitat for wildlife

Industrialized agriculture currently substitutes many of the ecological functions of soil micro-organisms, macroinvertebrates, wild plants, and vertebrate animals with high cost inputs of pesticides and fertilizers. Enhanced biological diversity potentially offers agricultural producers a means of reducing the cost of their production. Conservation of biodiversity in agricultural landscapes may be greatly enhanced by the adoption of certain crop management practices, such as reduced pesticide usage or measures to prevent soil erosion. Still, the vast monocultures comprising the crop area in many Canadian agricultural landscapes are often of limited conservation value, thus the inclusion of appropriate wildlife habitat in and around arable lands is a fundamental prerequisite for the integration of wild species within agricultural landscapes. This review of current literature considers the potential for non-crop areas within agricultural landscapes to be reservoirs of agronomically beneficial organisms including plants, invertebrates, and vertebrate species. Non-crop habitats adjacent to crop land have been identified as significant for the maintenance of plant species diversity, for the conservation of beneficial pollinating and predatory insects, and as essential habitat for birds. A key component for enhancement of biodiversity is the reintroduction of landscape heterogeneity by (1) protection and enhancement of key non-crop areas, (2) smaller fields and farms, and (3) a greater mixture of crops, through rotation, intercropping and regional diversification. The benefits of increased biodiversity within arable lands are reviewed for various species groups. In the Canadian context, any serious attempt to derive significant agronomic benefit from increased biodiversity will require considerable changes in the agricultural programs and policies which shape mainstream industrialized agriculture. The problems of crop depredation by vertebrate species, weed and insect competition, which still represent significant impediments to the creation and proper management of wildlife habitat, are also discussed.     

Impact of riverine wetlands construction and operation on stream channel stability: Conceptual framework for geomorphic assessment

Wetland conservation is a critical environmental management issue. An emerging approach to this issue involves the construction of wetland environments. Because our understanding of wetlands function is incomplete and such projects must be monitored closely because they may have unanticipated impacts on ecological, hydrological, and geomorphological systems. Assessment of project-related impacts on stream channel stability is an important component of riverine wetlands construction and operation because enhanced erosion or deposition associated with unstable rivers can lead to loss of property, reductions in channel capacity, and degradation of water quality, aquatic habitat, and riparian aesthetics. The water/sediment budget concept provides a scientific framework for evaluating the impact of riverine wetlands construction and operation on stream channel stability. This concept is based on the principle of conservation of mass, i.e., the total amount of water and sediment moving through a specific reach of river must be conserved. Long-term measurements of channel sediment storage and other water/sediment budget components provide the basis for distinguishing between project-related impacts and those resulting from other causes. Changes in channel sediment storage that occur as a result of changes in internal inputs of water or sediment signal a project-related impact, whereas those associated with changes in upstream or tributary inputs denote a change in environmental conditions elsewhere in the watershed. A geomorphic assessment program based on the water/sediment budget concept has been implemented at the site of the Des Plaines River Wetlands Demonstration Projection near Chicago, Illinois, USA. Channel sediment storage changed little during the initial construction phase, suggesting that thus far the project has not affected stream channel stability.     

Energy pricing and groundwater use

The current policy of many state governments in India to supply cheap and subsidized power to farmers for irrigation pumping is being increasingly questioned by many environmentalists and agriculturalists. States where power tariffs for irrigation are subsidized and cheap have seen a fall in their groundwater tables which could threaten the long-term sustainability of irrigated agriculture in these areas. This paper presents the results of a survey, undertaken to understand the effect of energy pricing on groundwater tables. The paper argues that current energy pricing policies are at cross purposes to groundwater conservation. Equity effects of energy pricing for irrigation pumping is also discussed .     

WATER-ENERGY LINKAGES IN NEBRASKA1

ABSTRACT Nebraska is well endowed with water, particularly groundwater, but has few fossil fuel reserves. However, it is located adjacent to states which have almost no water but have enormous quantities of coal and oil shale. Recent court cases facilitate the movement of water from water-rich states such as Nebraska to water-short states, such as Colorado and Wyoming. The possibility of an energy-water partnership exists and raise numerous policy questions. Within Nebraska, energy consumption patterns are similar to those of the nation's, with consumption of electricity in the agricultural sector growing fastest. Water consumption in the state is dominated by agriculture, and future development of groundwater for irrigation is expected to be intense. Although water and energy are both factors of economic production, an equivalent amount of water consumption provides more jobs in the energy industries than in agriculture. Water and energy are also interdependent. Each is required to produce the other and conservation of one will cause conservation of the other. If both agriculture and electricity are involved, such as in irrigation, the conservation effects are synergistic. Current water policy in Nebraska is biased toward agriculture relative to the energy industries and provides little incentive for water conservation. Given recent court cases and economic conditions, the advantages and disadvantages of the sale of water for export or the use of water with Wyoming coal for energy development need to be compared systematically with those of using water only for agriculture.     

Economic Incentives to Conserve Wildlife on Private Lands: Analysis and Policy

Some believe that provision of private property rights in wildlife on private land provides a powerful economic incentive for nature conservation because it enables property owners to market such wildlife or its attributes. If such marketing is profitable, private landholders will conserve the wildlife concerned and its required habitat. But land is not always most profitably used for exploitation of wildlife, and many economic values of wildlife (such as non-use economic values) cannot be marketed. The mobility of some wildlife adds to the limitations of the private-property approach. While some species may be conserved by this approach, it is suboptimal as a single policy approach to nature conservation. Nevertheless, it is being experimented with, in the Northern Territory of Australia where landholders had a possibility of harvesting on their properties a quota of eggs and chicks of red-tailed black cockatoos for commercial sale. This scheme was expected to provide an incentive to private landholders to retain hollow trees essential for the nesting of these birds but failed. This case and others are analysed. Despite private-property failures, the long-term survival of some wildlife species depends on their ability to use private lands without severe harassment, either for their migration or to supplement their available resources, for example, the Asian elephant. Nature conservation on private land is often a useful, if not essential, supplement to conservation on public lands. Community and public incentives for such conservation are outlined.     

A VSA-Based Strategy for Placing Conservation Buffers in Agricultural Watersheds

Conservation buffers have the potential to reduce agricultural nonpoint source pollution and improve terrestrial wildlife habitat, landscape biodiversity, flood control, recreation, and aesthetics. Conservation buffers, streamside areas and riparian wetlands are being used or have been proposed to control agricultural nonpoint source pollution. This paper proposes an innovative strategy for placing conservation buffers based on the variable source area (VSA) hydrology. VSAs are small, variable but predictable portion of a watershed that regularly contributes to runoff generation. The VSA-based strategy involves the following three steps: first, identifying VSAs in landscapes based on natural characteristics such as hydrology, land use/cover, topography and soils; second, targeting areas within VSAs for conservation buffers; third, refining the size and location of conservation buffers based on other factors such as weather, environmental objectives, available funding and other best management practices. Building conservation buffers in VSAs allows agricultural runoff to more uniformly enter buffers and stay there longer, which increases the buffers capacity to remove sediments and nutrients. A field-scale example is presented to demonstrate the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of the within-VSA conservation buffer scenario relative to a typical edge-of-field buffer scenario. The results enhance the understanding of hydrological processes and interactions between agricultural lands and conservation buffers in agricultural landscapes, and provide practical guidance for land resource managers and conservationists who use conservation buffers to improve water quality and amenity values of agricultural landscape.     

Evolving policies for conservation: An Historical Profile of the Protected Area System of Nepal

Nepal has instituted progressive conservation programmes since the 1970s. This move was in reaction to very rapid rates of land clearance in the lowland areas of the country and an opening up to the world that led to nature-based tourism as a major economic enterprise. Formal conservation began with the passage of national legislation in 1973 offering strong protection for national parks and wildlife reserves, but denied usufruct rights to rural communities. From the late 1970s to the 1990s, the legislation was amended several times. Each case was, in several fundamental ways, a loosening of control by government authorities. Nepal now has buffer zone legislation and allows for the designation of conservation areas in addition to the more-strictly defined categories. Beginning in the 1990s, both government and foreign-backed projects have been implementing landscape level conservation approaches; a number of initiatives in trans-boundary protected area management with India and China have also begun and non-governmental organizations have taken an increasingly active role. This paper considers the expansion of the protected areas network in light of historical, cultural and economic factors and concludes that Nepal has been reactive in adopting conservation programmes. Both outside and inside influences have strongly affected the development of conservation programmes and there are several areas in which more work needs to be done. This includes the need for implementing both national and international conservation law and adopting social and biological monitoring programmes in and around protected areas. In addition, factors outside the control of conservation officials (i.e. a Maoist insurgency) have indirectly hindered conservation programmes in recent years and have greatly complicated prospects for further success.     

The state of bird and nature protection in Croatia

Summary Croatia, as a Mediterranean country in the south-eastern part of Europe, is an area with a characteristic flora and fauna. The ornithofauna of Croatia reflects that it is a breeding area for some of the globally endangered bird species, as well as a site for the spring/autumn passage and the wintering of European migratory birds. Many ornithologically significant localities are designated and there are 20 ornithological reserves and four wetland sites that are on the list of the Ramsar Convention.In Croatia, there are four governmental organizations dealing with scientific research on birds of which the Institute for Ornithology of the Croatian Academy, of Sciences and Arts is that with the longest tradition. There are also many non-governmental organizations dedicated to the protection of environment, but only the Croatian Society for Bird and Nature Protection is dedicated mostly to bird protection. There are not many sources of funding for research and the protection of birds; the chief source being the Ministry of Sciences and Technology of the Republic of Croatia.Croatia has to establish new legislation according to European criteria and The Hunting Law, The Nature Protection Law and The Environment Protection Law have been recently accepted in Parliament. International Conventions, such as Bern, Bonn and Washington, have yet to be adopted. Foreign, hunting tourism, especially organized by fishpond authorities, is believed to be killing large numbers of protected water birds. A red data book exists only for plants and mammals and this makes biological assessments difficult.With the end of military operations and the reintegration of the occupied areas of Croatia, an assessment of the damage to the national parks and nature reserves, and to nature in general, will be necessary. Bird and nature conservation in Croatia remains promising, provided the legal control of the Croatian government over the occupied parts of the country is restored soon and international organizations give assistance.Dr Jasmina Muini is Croatian by birth and she has studied in Paris, Oslo, and Zagred where she gained her PhD. She is a President of the Croatian Society for Bird and Nature Protection, a member of the Croatian Parliament Board for Environmental Protection, vice-president of the Scientific Council of the Zoological Garden in Zagreb, and a member of other Croatian environmental bodies. She is a leading authority on the ornithofauna of the Croatian wetlands.     

SIMULATION AND DECISIONMAKING: THE PLATTE RIVER BASIN IN NEBRASKA1

Substantial conflict exists over water management and allocation in the Platte River Basin of Nebraska. An interdisciplinary computer simulation model, representing the water quantity, water quality, environmental, and economic dimensions of the conflict, was developed in order to analyze the tradeoffs among allocation scenarios. Most importantly, decisionmakers and interest groups were involved in model development. Simulation results for a base case and two scenarios are presented. One scenario favors protection of instream flow for wildlife; the other favors water diversions for agriculture. Impacts of the instream flow scenario, as measured by the amount of land irrigated, groundwater levels, the amount of wildlife habitat for cranes and catfish, and net agricultural benefits did not differ greatly from those of the base case. However, impacts of the diversion scenario were substantial. On the negative side, instream flows and wildlife habitat declined an average of 39 percent; while, on the positive side, groundwater levels and net agricultural benefits each increased 6 percent. The modeling process was successful insofar as it promoted an understanding among the highly diverse interest groups of the systems nature of the Basin. One agreement on a water diversion schedule among three of the parties has been reached, partly as a result of this process. More comprehensive compromises have not yet been forged. Our experience, however, indicates that modeling success at the policymaking level depends more on the extent to which the policymakers understand the model than it does on model sophistication.     

Challenging established narratives on soil erosion and shifting cultivation in Laos

The official environmental discourse in Laos describes a “chain of degradation” stretching from upland shifting cultivation, increased runoff and soil erosion to the siltation of wetlands and reservoirs. This perspective has had wide‐ranging impacts on rural development policy which, in the uplands, has long favoured forest conservation over agriculture. Integrating soil erosion and water sediment data with local perceptions of land degradation in an upland village of northern Laos, this study tests the validity of the official environmental discourse. Biophysical measurements made in a small agricultural catchment indicate a significant correlation between the spatial extent of cultivation and soil erosion rates. However, sediment yields recorded at the outlet of the catchment highlight relatively low levels of off‐site sediment exportation. Furthermore, farmers' perceptions suggest that local land degradation issues and crop yield declines could be less related to soil erosion than to agricultural land shortage, increased weed competition, and fertility losses resulting from the intensification of shifting cultivation. The study concludes that a better understanding and management of land degradation issues can be achieved by developing more inclusive and scientifically‐informed approaches to environmental perceptions and narratives.